Articles of Confederation

America’s first national government (ratified 1781). It created a loose alliance of states with a very weak central government. Powers: Could declare war, make treaties, coin money Weaknesses: No power to tax, no national court system, no power to regulate trade, required unanimous consent to amend Significance: Showed that the U.S. needed a stronger central government, leading to the Constitutional Convention

Republican Motherhood

The belief that women should raise educated, virtuous sons to be good republican citizens.

• Expanded women’s role in education

• Did not grant political rights

• Reflected new ideas about citizenship and responsibility

Sedition Acts (1798)

Part of the Alien and Sedition Acts.

• Made it illegal to criticize the federal government

• Used mainly against Democratic-Republicans

• Significance: Violated free speech, increased political tensions

Kentucky & Virginia Resolutions

Written secretly by Jefferson (KY) and Madison (VA).

• Argued states could nullify unconstitutional federal laws

• Response to the Alien & Sedition Acts

• Introduced the idea of states’ rights

Land Ordinance of 1785

Created a system for surveying and selling western land.

• Land divided into townships

• Section 16 reserved for public education

• Helped fund the government and promote orderly settlement

Northwest Ordinance of 1787

Established how territories become states.

• Guaranteed religious freedom, trial by jury

• Banned slavery north of the Ohio River

• Set precedent for equal statehood

Shays’ Rebellion (1786–1787)

Armed uprising of farmers in Massachusetts led by Daniel Shays.

• Protested high taxes and debt

• State militia struggled to stop it

• Significance: Exposed weaknesses of the Articles → pushed elites toward a stronger government

Treaty of Paris (1783)

Ended the American Revolutionary War.

• Britain recognized U.S. independence

• U.S. gained land to the Mississippi River

• Established America as a sovereign nation

James Madison

• “Father of the Constitution”

• Author of much of the Constitution and Bill of Rights

• Co-author of The Federalist Papers

• Favored strong but limited government

Alexander Hamilton

• Strong Federalist

• Created Hamilton’s Financial Plan

• Favored strong central government, national bank

• First Secretary of the Treasury

Virginia Plan

Proposed by James Madison.

• Bicameral legislature

• Representation based on population

• Favored large states

New Jersey Plan

Proposed by William Paterson.

• Unicameral legislature

• Equal representation for states

• Favored small states

Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise)

Blended the VA and NJ Plans.

• House of Representatives: based on population

• Senate: equal representation

• Saved the Constitutional Convention

Mount Vernon Conference (1785)

Meeting between Virginia and Maryland over trade issues.

• First step toward national cooperation

• Led to the Annapolis Conference

Annapolis Conference (1786)

Discussed interstate trade problems.

• Few states attended

• Called for a broader meeting → Constitutional Convention

Constitutional Convention (1787)

Meeting in Philadelphia to revise the Articles.

• Ended up writing a new Constitution

• Key compromises: representation, slavery, federalism

John Dickinson

• Author of Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania

• Supported independence cautiously

• Favored balance between liberty and order

Federalism

System that divides power between national and state governments.

• Prevents tyranny

• Allows shared powers (taxation, law enforcement)

House of Representatives

Lower house of Congress.

• Representation based on population

• Members serve 2-year terms

• Initiates revenue bills

Senate

Upper house of Congress.

• Equal representation (2 per state)

• 6-year terms

• Approves treaties and appointments

Federalists

Supported ratification of the Constitution.

• Favored strong central government

• Leaders: Hamilton, Madison, Jay

• Supported commerce and a national bank

Anti-Federalists

Opposed ratification.

• Feared strong government

• Wanted Bill of Rights

• Leaders: Patrick Henry, George Mason

The Federalist Papers

85 essays supporting ratification.

• Explained Constitution

• Argued checks and balances prevent tyranny

• Still used to interpret the Constitution today

Separation of Powers

Divides government into three branches:

• Legislative

• Executive

• Judicial
  Prevents any one branch from becoming too powerful.

Enumerated Powers

Powers specifically listed in the Constitution (Article I, Section 8).

• Tax

• Declare war

• Regulate trade

Elastic Clause (Necessary and Proper Clause)

Allows Congress to pass laws needed to carry out its powers.

• Basis for implied powers

• Expanded federal authority

Reserved Powers

Powers not given to the federal government, kept by the states.

• Education

• Local elections

• Marriage laws

Roger Sherman

Proposed the Great Compromise

• Key figure in saving the Convention

Checks and Balances

Each branch can limit the others.

• President vetoes laws

• Congress overrides veto

• Courts declare laws unconstitutional

Three-Fifths Compromise

Counted enslaved people as 3/5 of a person for representation and taxation.

• Increased Southern political power

• Showed moral contradiction of slavery

Commercial Compromise

• Congress can regulate trade

• Slave trade allowed until 1808

• No export taxes

Electoral College

• States have electors based on representation

• Compromise between popular vote and congressional selection

Bill of Rights

First 10 amendments.

• Protect individual liberties

• Freedom of speech, religion, press, due process

• Required to gain Anti-Federalist support

The Constitution (Articles)

• Article I: Legislative

• Article II: Executive

• Article III: Judicial

• Articles IV–VII: States, amendments, ratification

National Bank

Proposed by Hamilton.

• Stored federal funds

• Issued stable currency

• Controversial due to constitutional interpretation

Proclamation of Neutrality (1793)

Washington declared the U.S. neutral in European wars.

• Avoided conflict with Britain and France

• Set precedent for isolationism

Naturalization Acts

Made it harder for immigrants to become citizens.

• Targeted immigrants who supported Democratic-Republicans

Presidential Cabinet

Advisors to the president.

• Not mentioned in Constitution

• Created by Washington

Judiciary Act of 1789

Established the federal court system.

• Supreme Court and lower courts

• Strengthened judicial branch

Whiskey Rebellion (1794)

Farmers protested tax on whiskey.

• Washington used military force

• Proved federal government could enforce laws

Pinckney Treaty (1795)

Agreement with Spain.

• U.S. gained access to the Mississippi River

• Boosted western trade

Jay Treaty (1795)

Agreement with Britain.

• Avoided war

• Angered France and Democratic-Republicans

XYZ Affair

French officials demanded bribes from U.S. diplomats.

• Led to Quasi-War

• Increased anti-French sentiment

Alien Acts

Allowed president to detain or deport foreigners.

• Targeted immigrants

• Part of Alien & Sedition Acts

Washington’s Farewell Address

Warned against:

• Political parties

• Foreign alliances

• Sectionalism

Hamilton’s Financial Plan

• Federal assumption of state debts

• National bank

• Excise taxes

• Strengthened credit and federal power

First Political Parties

• Federalists: strong government

• Democratic-Republicans: states’ rights

• Created lasting political divisions

Ratification

Process of approving the Constitution.

• Required 9 of 13 states

• Achieved through compromise and promises of a Bill of Rights