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Allele
A version of a gene
Allopatric speciation
Speciation that occurs when two populations are geographically isolated due to a physical barrier
Apoptosis
Programmed cell death
Autosomal linkage
When two or more genes are positioned on the same autosome. Unlikely to be separated by crossing over so often inherited together
Autosome
Chromosome that is not an X or Y chromosome
Bioinformatics
Development of computer tools and software required to organise and analyse unprocessed biological data
Chi-squared
Statistical test used to determine whether a pattern of inheritance is significant
Chlorosis
Condition on which plant leaf cells produce insufficient chlorophyll, resulting in pale or yellow coloured leaves. This may be due to mineral deficiencies, lack of light or viral infections
Codominance
When both alleles for a gene in a heterozygous organism equally contribute to the phenotype
Computational biology
The use of computational techniques to analyse large amounts of biodata and build theoretical models of biological systems
Continuous variation
A type of variation that cannot be categorised. Produces a continuous range in which characteristics can take any value
Deletion
Gene mutations in which one or more nucleotide bases are removed from a DNA sequence. May lead to a frameshift mutation, changing every successive codon
Dihybrid inheritance
The determination of a trait by the inheritance of two genes
Directional selection
A type of selection that favours one extreme phenotype and selects against all other phenotypes
Discontinuous variation
Variation that can be categorised. A characteristic can only appear in discrete values, influenced by one of two genes
Disruptive selection
Type of selection that favours individuals with extreme phenotypes and selects against those with phenotypes close to the mean
DNA barcode
Short sequence of DNA that is used to identify a species
DNA ligase
An enzyme that joins the sugar-phosphate backbone of two DNA segments
DNA profiling
Technique used to determine the patterns in the non-coding DNA of an individual. It involves the five main stages: extraction, digestion, separation, hybridisation, and observation
DNA sequencing
Determining the entire DNA nucleotide base sequence of an organism
Dominant
Allele that is always expressed
Electrophoresis
Chromatography that separates nucleic acid fragments or proteins by size using electric current
Electroporation
Method of transformation in which a small electric current is used to transfer recombinant plasmids into bacterial cells to fragments of DNA into eukaryotic cells
Epistasis
Describes a relationship between genes at different loci, where the allele of one gene affects the expression of a different gene
Etiolation
Condition in plants characterised by weak stems and small, pale leaves, due to insufficient exposure to light
Evolution
The gradual change in the allele frequencies within a population over time. Occurs due to natural selection
Exon
A sequence of DNA that codes for an amino acid sequence
Founder effect
A type of genetic drift in which a few individuals of a species break off from the population and form a new colony. This results in smaller gene pools and an increased frequency of rare alleles
Gene mutation
A change to at least one nucleotide base in DNA or the arrangement of bases. Gene mutations can occur spontaneously during DNA replication and may be beneficial, damaging, or neutral
Gene therapy
A therapeutic technique in which a faulty allele is replaced with a functional allele in order to treat or prevent disease
Genetically modified organism
Organism that has had its genome altered
Genetic bottleneck
A drastic reduction in population size leading to reduced genetic diversity within a population
Genetic drift
Random variations in allele frequencies in small populations due to mutations
Genetic engineering
Modification of the genome of an organism by the insertion of a desired gene from another organism. This enables the formation of organisms with beneficial characteristics
Genome
Complete genetic material of an organism
Genotype
An organisms genetic composition
Germ line cell gene therapy
A type of gene therapy in which a faulty allele is replaced with a functional allele in germ cells or a very early embryo. The effects are permanent and can be inherited
Hardy-Weinberg principal
A model that predicts the ratio of dominant and recessive alleles in a population will remain constant between generations is the following five conditions are met: no new mutations; no natural selection; no migration; large population; and random mating.
Heterozygous
When someone has two different alleles of a gene
High-throughput sequencing
Large scale approaches to DNA sequencing that use a flow cell. Enable many clusters of DNA fragments to be sequenced simultaneously, giving efficient and rapid sequencing
Homeobox genes
A group of regulatory genes that contain and homeobox, a DNA sequence that is highly conserved in animals, plants and fungi. Homeobox genes are responsible for the development of body plans in different organisms
Homozygous
When someone has two identical alleles of a gene
Hox gene
A type of homeobox gene that is present in animals only
Inbreeding
Formation of offspring from the breeding of closely related individuals
Insertion
A form of gene mutation in which one or more nucleotide bases are added to a DNA sequence. May lead to a frameshift mutation
Intron
Non-coding sequence of DNA
Lac operon
Group of three structural genes, lacZ, lacY, and lacA that are required for the metabolism of lactose
Mature mRNA
Final mRNa product that has had introns removed as well as having undergone other post-transcriptional changes
Mitosis
Cell division that produces two genetically identical diploid daughter cells.
Monogenic inheritance
Determination of a trait by the inheritance of a single gene
Multiple alleles
When a gene has more that two potential alleles
Mutagen
A chemical, biological, or physical agent that increases the rate of gene mutant ions above normal level
Operon
A group of genes that are expressed together and controlled by the same regulatory mechanism
Phenotype
Organisms observable characteristics. Due to interactions of the genotype and environment
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
An in vitro technique used to rapidly amplify fragments of DNA
Post-transcriptional control
The level of gene regulation in which primary mRNA can be modified, controlling translation
Post-translational control
The level of gene regulation in which proteins can be modified post-synthesis
Pre-mRNA
The product of transcription before any post-transcriptional regulation
Recessive
Describes and allele that is only expressed in the absence of a dominant allele
Recombinant DNA
DNA that has had fragments of foreign DNA inserted
Regulatory gene
Gene that codes for the production of proteins involves in DNA regulation. Influenced by internal and external stimuli
Repressor protein
Protein that binds to the operator, altering the transcription rate
Restriction endonucleases
Enzymes that cut DNA molecules at recognition sequences creating sticky ends
Sanger sequencing
First method of DNA sequencing that involved formation of DNA fragments of varying lengths. Fluorescent ‘terminator’ bases marked the final base of each fragment, allowing over DNA sequence to be determined
Selection pressures
Factors that affect an organisms ability to survive in an environment
Selective breeding
Humans artificially select organisms with desirable characteristics and breed them to produce offspring with desirable phenotypes
Sex-linkage
Presence of a gene on an X or Y chromosome
Sexual reproduction
A form of reproduction involving the random fusion of male and female gametes
Somatic cell gene therapy
A type of gene therapy in which a faulty allele is replaced with a functional allele in affected somatic cells. Effects are temporary and cannot be inherited
Speciation
Formation of a new species due to the evolution of two reproductively separated populations. Two types allopatric and sympatric
Stabilising selection
Type of selection that favours individuals with phenotypes close to the mean and selects against extreme phenotypes
Sticky ends
The staggered cut formed by restriction endonucleases in double-stranded DNA
Structural gene
Gene that codes for the production of proteins or enzymes that are not involved in DNA regulation
Substitution
A form of gene mutation in which one nucleotide base is exchanged for another. This may change an amino acid if produce the same amino acid
Sympatric speciation
A form of speciation that occurs when two populations within the same area become reproductively isolated
Synthetic biology
The design and construction of new biological entities, as well as the reconstruction of pre-existing natural biological systems
Thermocycler
A machine controlled by a computer that varies temperatures at predetermined time intervals
Transcriptional control
Level of gene regulation in which genes are switched ‘on’ or ‘off’
Transcription factors
Proteins that help switch genes ‘on’ or ‘off’
Transgenic organism
An organism that contains recombinant DNA
Translational control
Level of gene regulation in which translation can be initiated or stopped
Vector
Carrier used to transfer a gene from one organism to another
Artificial twinning
Artificial production of monozygotic twins from the manual splitting of the early embryo
Aseptic techniques
Techniques used to culture microorganisms under sterile conditions in order to minimise contamination
Batch fermentation
Industrial method of fermentation that runs for a set period of time. Culture broth is not removed until the fermentation is complete
Bioremediation
Use of microorganisms to remove soil and water pollution
Biotechnology
Field of biology involving the use of living systems to produce or transform materials
Brewing
Production of beer from the steeping of barley in water, and fermentation of the resulting product with yeast
Clones
Genetically identical offspring produced as a result of cloning
Cloning
Method of producing genetically identical offspring by asexual reproduction
Continuous fermentation
Industrial method in which culture broth is continuously removed and extra nutrient medium is added. Conditions remain relatively constant
Culture
The growth of living matter in vitro in suitable conditions
Cutting
Small section of the root or stem of an adult plant used in horticulture to produce natural clones
Enucleation
Removal of the nucleus
Fermentation
Anaerobic respiration that does not involve an electron transport chain
Immobilised aminoacylase
An immobilised enzyme that is used to produce pure samples of L-amino acids
Immobilised enzymes
Enzymes which are attached to inert, insoluble material over which the substrate passes and the reaction takes place
Immobilised glucoamylase
An immobilised enzyme that can be used to breakdown dextrins into glucose
Immobilised glucose isomerase
An immobilised enzyme that is used to convert glucose to fructose
Immobilised lactase
An immobilised enzyme that hydrolyses lactose to glucose and galactose in the production of lactose-free milk