Crimean war

Initial eventts

army of 26k troops sailed to Crimea shortly after the declaration of war, despite problems in command and organisation

Wellington’s influence

• Commander-in-chief 1827-8 and 1842-53

• massive influence over military affairs

• believed in continuity of successful elements

• army reforms demands for cuts in military spending

Lord Raglan

• head of British expeditionary force

• served on Wellington’s staff in peninsular, including as his military secretary

• distinct administrative ability and bravery

• seen no active service since 1815 and never commanded an army

• only one of his 5 infantry divisional commanders under 60- Duke of Cambridge, Queen Vic’s cousin who’d never been in a battle. Chief engineer Sir Burgoyne was 72.

• only 2 divisional commanders had led anything larger than a battalion into action

military commanders

• signs of growing professionalism in parts of officer corps

• system of commissions ensured wealth more important than ability

• officers principally drawn from landed gentry/military families

military administration

• Secretary of State for war and colonies

• Secretary at War

• Commander-in-Chief

• Adjuatant-General

• Quartermaster-General

• Home Secretary

• Ordnance office

• Commissariat

Resultantly, there were often delays and inertia

Problem of manpower due to poor conditions of service

• difficulty in attracting sufficient recruits

• most barracks insanitary and overcrowded

• pay was poor

• service overseas had heavy impact on life and health

• soldiers could still be flogged

• infantry served 21 years, cavalry 24

situation by 1854

• little thought to staff work and administrative co-ordination as Britain did not expect to be involved in a major war

• army expected to achieve a quick/comprehensive victory over Russia

• fought well due to soldiers’ professionalism and bravery

• Infantry had major advantage with rifled muskets and artillery, but logistical challenges hindered operations.

• Russian muskets had range of under 100yds, compared to Lee Enfield rifle accurate at over 400yds.

Battle of Alma - September 1854

• 63k British and French landed in Crimea and marched towards Sevastopol

• at River Alma: allied forces encountered Menshikov’s Russian army occupying strong defensive position above river

• Fierce fighting led outnumbered Russian forces to withdraw

• Raglan wanted allies to march to take Sevastopol, but cautious French commanders refused

• this allowed Russians to regroup and the war continued

what weaknesses did the Battle of Alma reveal?

• some officers provided poor leadership

• many troops untrained

Battle of Balaclava - October 1854

• marched southward and laid siege to Sevastopol, giving Russians time to improve their defences

• Raglan’s army took up positions around Balaclava

• 25th October: Russian army advance towards Balaclava

• Russian cavalry driven back by heavy brigade

• Misunderstood order: Light Brigade attacked well-defended Russian Artillery.

• 664 men charged: 113 killed, 130 wounded and 58 taken prisoner

Battle of Inkerman - November 1854

• boosted Russians’ morale and had lots of reinforcements by early Nov.

• 5 Nov: Russians attacked Inkerman ridge

• small units of British infantry fought much larger numbers of Russians

• Arrival of French troops: Russians retreated, having suffered 11k casualties

• British losses: 597 killed and 1860 wounded

• French: 130 killed and 750 wounded

• insignificant gains towards capturing Sevastopol

Crimean winter 1854-5

• cold and wet

• shortage of tents

• lack of firewood

• men unable to cook or stay dry and warm

problem of transport

• transporting supplies 4,000 miles from Britain to Balaclava was simple

• Transport 6 miles from Balaclava to siege lines was more difficult

• Incompetent Commissariat officials failed to provide troops with essential supplies of food, fuel, tents and clothing - Balaclava became place of nightmarish chaos

Medical situation

• Soldiers suffered from: cholera, scurvy, dysentry, typhus and typhoid.

• Hospital tents and medicines scarce

• Filthy and overcrowded hospitals at Balaclava and Scutari

• late January 1855: 11k strong army; sick and wounded was 23k

• administrative chaos lessned and supplies better distributed towards Spring, declining death rate

capture of Sebastopol - September 1855

• little allied movement against Sebastopol in 1854 winter

• British and French attacks in June 1855 failed

• 28th June: Raglan, overworked and dispirited, died of dysentry

• September: 6th allied bombardment led Russians to abandon Sebastopol

Role of Raglan

• Raglan’s command of British forces strongly criticised

• Raglan used many of the same methods in Crimea as were used by Wellington in the peninsular

• preferred traditional methods of warfare, not innovation

• dreadful conditions his troops faced caused by commanders’ incompetence who mismanaged supplies to Balaclava and siege lines

• unable to persuade allies to mount all-out attack on Sebastopol. Siege warfare lengthtened the war.

Florence Nightingale

born into a wealthy British family in 1820, she became a pioneer of nursing and reformer of hospital sanitation. Nightingale is best known for her work during the Crimean War, where she significantly improved the conditions of the military hospitals.

Scutari

• horrific reports led Nightingale to be sent there to help

• War Secretary authorised this, along with her taking 38 other nurses with her

• arrived November 1854

• found sick and wounded soldiers poorly cared for

• Dr Hall, Raglan’s principal Medical Officer and doctors only initially allowed her to undertake menial duties

• Nightingale’s influence grew

Nightingale’s influence

• hospital numbers increased

• charitable fund of £30k for medical necessities

• wards cleaned, fresh bed linen available and better food provided

Nightingale’s reputation

• national heroine

• soldiers’ wives had long tended soldiers and nuns often acted as nurses.

• framed as Lady with the Lamp - perceived as tough-minded administrator

• death rates continued to rise

• Nightingale’s hospital had highest death toll of all in 1854 winter with 4k deaths

• Sanitary Commission sent out in March 1855 - ultimately produced improvements. Flushed out sewers and improved ventilation

Royal Commission on health of the army

• upon return, Nightingale wanted to improve troops’ health

• Royal Commission appointed in 1857

• Nightingale realised from evidence collected that most soldiers at Scutari died from poor hygiene and sanitation

• successfully promoted overhaul of army’s health, especially improved sanitary conditions

Nightingale Training School

• 1855: public meeting gave recognition to her work

• established fund for training nurses

• 1860: world’s first secular training school set up at St Thomas’ Hospital, London

Nightingale’s influence

• inspired many women to devote their lives to nursing

• pioneer of modern nursing: example of compassion, commitment to patient care and diligent administration

Mary Seacole

• daughter of Scottish army officer and Jamaican woman

• taught herbal remedies by her mother, which she used to treat cholera victims in 1840s and 1850s

• heard about poor medical provision: applied to war office, hoping to be sent out as an assistant

Mary Seacole in Crimea

• borrowed money and went out to Turkey

• Nightingale declined her help and went to Balaclava

• Built a Hotel from salvaged materials and nursed sick soldiers

• Nightingale ambivalent about Seacole - made many more drunk

• Russell was more complimentary - warm and successful physician, who doctors and cures all manner of men with extraordinary success

• praised today for achievements in overcoming Victorian gender and racial prejudices.

Newspaper coverage

• influenced British attitudes significantly

• newspaper coverage and electric telegraph ensured public able to read about warfare realities immediately for the first time

• and helped shape public opinion about the war, leading to increased scrutiny of military leadership and medical care.

• newspaper costs fell due to new tech and elimination of various duties

• newspapers too expensive for some, esp. those who were illiterate

William Howard Russell

• reported for The Times

• Present at Battle of Alma and reported extensively on the siege

• Raglan and senior officers uncooperative but Russell respected by junior officers and ordinary troops

• reports highlighted dreadful conditions soldiers experienced, ineffective treatment of wounded and mismanagement of supplies

• praised bravery of troops, but asked awkward questions when he saw problems, writing of this

• reports used by critics of government and integral to collapse of Aberdeen’s gov in January 1855

Roger Fenton

• went to Crimea in 1855 as first official war photographer

• hoped he’d counteract anti-war reporting

• due to primitive photographic technology, not action photos taken

• 360 photos taken

• most photos posed pictures of men/officers or landscape images, including battlefields

• prints displayed in London and Halifax, published in book form

• newspapers lacked technology to print photos but Illustrated London News sent artists to Crimea that were later converted into engravings

Press attacks on Raglan

• army’s plight in Dec 1854 stirred Delane, The Times editor to criticise Raglan and authocratic leadership for incompetence

• Raglan considered attacks unworthy of response, concerned that newspaper reporting might give Russians useful info

• did not try to get rid of them and decided not to impose press censorship

Palmerston

• Jan 1855: motion to set up committee to inquire into conduct of war carried by 305 votes to 148

• Aberdeen resigned and replaced by Palmerston

• Palmerston popular with the public benefited as much already done to remedy matters

• administration made modest changes to war effort

Administrative and military reform

• demands for military and gov reform as criticisms of mismanagement grew

• new assertiveness amongst middle classes due to blunders by authocratic leadership

• 1856: gov introduced new reforms, introducing merit-based promotion in the Civil service and Army

• landed classes maintained grip on army and purchase system didn’t end until 1871

primary causes

• maintaining status quo

• bolster ailing Ottoman Empire

• check Russian aggression and power

• sink Russian fleet

• prop up ailing Ottoman Empire and resist Russian Expansionism

• religious tensions between Catholics and Orthodox over access to Jerusalem and other sacred places under Turkish rule

How has land warfare evolved?

• French Minie rifle: muzzle-loading rifle fired by a cap further than the Russians at 600yds

• soldiers used rifles mass produced in factories for first time due to industrialisation

• railways, telegraphs and steamships

• naval shells, Deane-Adams revolver first of its kind

how was the army supplied?

• unable to use navy as much: need to transfer supplies from Balaclava to front line

• inadequate transport: Commissariat unable to move supplies to men on land

• winter turned the road into a quagmire

• direct access to Navy in French wars: supplied via Navy and protected by Torres Vedras. In Crimea, attacked and infiltrated

• rifles arrived in armoured assault vessels, telegraph lines used, railroad lines built to transport supplies and ammunition

Issues with Britain’s preparation

• quite far away in Black Sea: possible difficulties in taking supplies. British and French naval fleets situated outside of Dardanelle straights initially, difficult to access

• Army had very few engineers and ill-prepared for medical care, using Commissariat carts to move dead and injured

• Commissariat: managed war supplies, funding, supplies and staff slowly whittled away over 35 years - limited supplies

• most soldiers inexperienced: few had fought previously and army smaller

Battle of Alma - 20 September 1854

• Raglan, Arnaud and Campbell - old and resistant to change

• 56.5k-58k British troops

• Menshikov - antiquated tactics and outdated smoothbore muskets

• 37.5k Russian troops - conscripts or landless serfs

Alma Battle - Reasons

• crossed river Alma and climbed hill faced with Russian artillery

• 250 soldiers climbed 50ft cliffs left unprotected

• whole rows of Russians mowed down

• relieve Sebastopol from Russian control

• Russians there to capture and recapture position on River Alma

• prevent Russians being able to trade from Black Sea

• British headed towards Russians with full frontal assault

• Russia not near cliffs, in lines facing GB - havoc among fusiliers.

• redoubt: took Russian gun position with Russian gentry retreating downhill

Battle of Alma - outcome

• British/ally casualties: Fr, 1600; GB, 2000; Ottomans 503

• Russian casualties: 5000

• Russian gentry retreated downhill with Menshikov back to Sevastopol - stronghold

• Times Reporter: “grass sloppy with blood”

Battle of Balaclava - 25 October 1854

• Cardigan and Raglan - head of Light Brigade and overall Commander

• Menshikov/Liprandi

• 28 000 British and French troops; 16 to 25000 Russian troops and 78 guns

Battle of Balaclava - reasons

• The Battle of Balaclava was fought to secure the supply route to the allied forces besieging Sevastopol, amidst the larger context of the Crimean War. Strategic miscommunication and mismanagement, particularly regarding the Light Brigade's charge, led to significant losses for the British forces.

• Russians want to break up road to Balaclava bay

• Britain defends supply lines

• Russians advance SW in attempt to attack and break british supply lines

• Turks send messengers back to Balaclava to raise alarm and get reinforcements - stop Russians advancing 1.5 hr, Turks retreat as GB arrive

• Russians able to press and have element of surprise - cavalry charge towards GB - Campbell doesn’t form square, line formed - only counters infantry

Battle of Balaclava - outcome

• charge of Light Brigade:"splendid, heroic, but grotesquely contravening standard military practice”

• 113/673 men died

• notorierty stemmed from confusion over orders

• 93rd Highlanders and thin red line prevented advance to British and the road

• Scarlett’s 300 cavalry - heavy cavalry brigade

• Nolan rides ahead of charge

• 110 killed, 130 wounded, 58 taken prisoner

• 628 deaths

• Nolan killed by a shell

• Russian advance halted and allied siege of Sebastopol maintained. Supply lines vulnerable from further attacks

Battle of Inkerman - 5 November 1854

• Somerset, 15,700 troops

• Menshikov, 40,500 troops

Battle of Inkerman - reasons

• GB embedded in Balaclava: positions, supply lines strong

• only issue was siege

• Russian want to divert stress of bombardment on Sevastopol

• Russians attack to ease siege

• French and Britain couldn’t agree plan of attack

• marched round city and put Sevastopol under siege

Battle of Inkerman - outcome

• foggy conditions precluded effective control and created confused battle

• French intervene and help Britain regain control

• Casualties: Britain 4373, Russians 11,959

• Deaths: Britain 2573, Russians 3286

• last battle: Russians lost will to fight allies on open ground - inferiority

• Allied siege lines so long insuffcient troops to manage them

Siege of Sevastopol - 17th October 1854 - 9th September 1855

• Raglan: 175k troops, including 30k British

• Menshikov: 130k troops

Siege - reasons

• 4 redoubts in bombardment: little Redan, great Redan, and Malakoff. The Allies aimed to capture these positions to weaken Russian defenses and secure control over Sevastopol. Vital to winning war.

• no cavalry

• capture high southern hills as Russia had taken over hills near Sevastopol

• Sevastopol surrounded by allied armies but unable to penetrate defences

• Allies had to dig in and starve Russians out

• had to survive through Winter

Siege - outcome

• 6th Bombardment, September 1855: could’ve failed - allies needed to support it

• British and French take control of Malakov

• Britain capture Little Redan

• French force Russians to leave Great Redan

• stormed fortifications

• Russian losses: 102k

• British losses: 128k

Logistical problems in Crimea

• initially planned to end up in Varna - unprepared to end up in Crimea

• supply lines impacted on 4k mile journey: storms or difficulties in part infrastructure, i.e. at Balaclava

• Inefficient port management: Balaclava ineffective and couldn’t handle supplies - frequently delayed due to weather. Lack of docking facilities led to distribution delays

• Poor roads meaning supplies didn’t reach front lines and casualties struggled to reach Balaclava

• food shortages and lack of medical supplies

Why was a hospital established at Scutari

• between Crimea and GB: very close to Varna

• originally offered as barracks then converted

• easier to set up from scratch - allied with Ottoman Empire

• safe harbour and supply line

• casualties had to be transported from Crimea via ships

Difficulties faced by allies in breaching walls at Sevastopol

• walls strong defensive structures with guns and earthworks - unprepared

• poor conditions of Crimean peninsular - difficult to transport artillery, hard to continue a continuous siege effort

challenges faced at Alma

• occurred in environment characterised by difficult terrain, steep heights and a river

• allies numerically inferior

• difficulties in advancement - Russia had 2 hills

• outbreaks of dysentry and cholera

• French part of plan lost momentum - British attack faltered and battalions entangled

missed opportunity following Alma

• route to Sevastopol open

• Allies didn’t realise weakness of defences: marched around it and besieged from south

• Russians able to strengthen fortifications

93rd Highlanders

• played heroic part in Balaclava - thin red line

• Campbell rode to front with them whilst Turks on GB flanks fled

• Russians met with 2 volleys of musket fire

• kept disciplined and fired several volleys at close range

Why was the death rate high at Inkerman

• dense fog precluded effective control by senior commanders, fight amongst smaller units

• allies significantly outnumbered

• siege lines so long there weren’t enough people

supply challenges in Crimea

• significant problems in getting them to Balaclava

• troops had to collect and carry supplies to trenches whilst not on active duty

• soldiers overworked and lived in poor conditions

• Britain had no winter clothing - ship carrying 40k ships sank

• private company afforded railway track to be built

Why was French morale higher

• They had winter uniforms - didn’t suffer same cold conditions

• huts, stables, shops and canteens

• soldiers didn’t have to cook for themselves

• paved road from Kamiesh to Sevastopol - easy to transport supplies

• adept at hunting - less issues with starvation

Lord Raglan - early life

• Born in Gloucestershire, 1788

• 9th Son of Henry Somerset, 5th Duke of Beaufort

• educated at Westminster school

• commissioned as Cornet in 4th Light Dragoons in 1804

Lord Raglan - tactics

• lack of communication

• disaster with charge of Light Brigade - could’ve preempted this

• expected Crimea to be like peninsular, citadels with weak fortifications

• Cautious: Balaclava had 25k infantry, 34 squadrons of cavalry, 78 pieces of artillery

Raglan - impact and legacy

• COLB: 110/670 killed and present in literature, e.g. Tennyson’s poem and Kipling’s book

• failures led to Cardwell reforms

• emphasised importance of clarity in orders and embracing modern technology

Raglan - battles fought

• 2nd Battle of Porto

• Talavera

• Bussaco

• Fuentes de Onoro

• Badajoz

• Salamanca

• Vitoria

• Quatre Bras and Waterloo

• Alma

• siege

• Balaclava

Raglan - leadership style

• old fashioned: believed France was the enemy

• centralised: chose to delay siege, forfeiting an advantage

• led from front: ambiguous order led to COLB

• well-meaning: inexperienced in difficult situation - blamed for lacking supplies

Strongholds

• defences on hills

• Malakoff, Redans and Mamelon fort

• trenches to protect positions

• allies bombarded Russian defences with infantry storming fortifications

Sea of Azov

• naval campaign fought between May and November 1855

• Russian Naval power destroyed

Lord Raglan

• unafraid to take risks, employing infantry against Great Redoubt

• naive - thought it was like Spain

William Russell

• approached by Delane, editor of the Times as freelance writer of 3 battles and siege

• 1843: employed full time by the newspaper

• sent to report on war in 1854

• brought war into many homes: free of censorships and maximised this in writing at length

• held government accountable

Accuracy of Russell’s reporting

• Anglo-Irish background: detached from English, not hesitant to condemn actions

• sympathies laid with ordinary soldiers, opposed to specific side

• reports’ eagerly awaited and avidly read by almost entire literate population of London

reaction of the Establishment

• despised him

• Raglan complained Russell revealed military info potentially useful to enemy, advised officers not to speak to him, claims he was a danger to security

• upset Queen Vic- infamous attacks against army which have disgraced our newspapers

• Prince Albert: miserable scribbler despoiling the country

social and political impacts of reports by Chenery and Russell

• reported epidemics of cholera and malaria: public health outcry, forcing gov to act

• revealed sufferings of Army Winter

• resulted in downfall of Aberdeen’s gov in January 1855

Why did reporting become incredibly popular

• free from censorship= unfiltered

• public actively involved in the debates and how campaign should be fought

• brought war into their homes

• held government accountable

who bought the Times Newspaper

• most literate people

• Tsar Nicholas: understand and learn about state of GB army and its weaknesses

Why was Roger Fenton sent to Crimea

• 1855: sent as first war photographer

• 360 images taken

• counter Times press releases: endorsed by Duke of Newcastle, SoS for war and patronage of Queen Vic

• photos turned into woodblocks for publication and widely disseminated, shaping public perception of the war.

• published in Illustrated London News

Chenery news reports

• first reports to report on dreadful conditions at Scutari

• editor of the Times sought to cover Crimea occasionally from the front as a diplomatic correspondent

advantages of war reporting

• held politicians accountable

• accurately portrays war realities

• portrays soldiers’ experiences

• detached from establishment and reported on conditions at Scutari - McNeill-Tulloch

• reported on epidemics, forcing gov action

Disadvantages of war reporting

• despised by military

• Raglan complained military info revealed

• upset Queen Victoria

• brought down Aberdeen government

medical problems

• 4/100 on boats were medical staff

• lacking supplies, rudimentary and ineffective anaesthetics

• lack of hygiene: problems with clean water and sanitation, leading to typhoid and typhus outbreaks

• Feb 1855: 52% of patients at Scutari died

McNeill-Tulloch report

• Lord Panmure, SoS war sent sanitary commissions following reports by Russell

• McNeill, a Scottish surgeon, and, Tulloch, war admin expert

• investigate civilian aspects of Army organisation: supplies and medical, high D.R. and conditions

• focused on diet and food supplies, the other on inadequate supplies

• first report outrageous: most casualties from disease

• poor health linked to lack of fresh food and army failed to provide full ration of food.

• A report commissioned in 1855 to investigate the sanitary conditions of the British Army during the Crimean War, highlighting the critical link between poor living conditions, inadequate supplies, and high disease rates among soldiers.

Why Nightingale went to Crimea?

• outcry about medical conditions

• SoS War Sidney Herbert asked her to head up nursing staff

• had worked in Harley Street and Germany

Nightingale’s improvements at Scutari

• GB gov commissioned Islambard Kingdom Brunel to design prefabricated hospital to be shipped

• reduced death rate to 2% by improving sanitation, nutrition, and overall care for soldiers. Called on Sanitary Commission and implemented handwashing

• sent commission out to flush out sewers and improve ventilation

Why did Florence have an impact?

• social reformer, standing on platform of evidence and talent for visualising data

• middle-class and well-respected by government

• challenged Chief Medical Officer at Scutari by writing letters to Herbert

Nightingale’s legacy

• founded modern nursing profession

• set up Nightingale school for Nursing in 1860, now part of KCL

• published over 200 books, pamphlets and articles on nursing and hospital management, e.g. Notes on Nursing

• Florence Nightingale medal

Mary Seacole - early life

• born in Kingston, Jamaica in 1805 to Scottish army officer and Jamaican Creole mother

• mother ran boarding house and taught her herbal remedies to use on cholera victims in Jamaica

• treated and nursed people in the cholera epidemic of 1850, which killed 32k Jamaicans

Mary Seacole - personality

• caring person prepared to care for the sick

• feisty businesswoman

• strong rapport with ordinary people, e.g. gold prospectors in Panama

• compassionate, brave, determined

• good citizenship: always wanted to help the wounded

• dedicated and innovative

Seacole - work in Crimea

• applied to war office to become assistant to tend to wounded as part of 2nd contingent

• applied to the Crimean fund, raised by public to support wounded but met British with refusal

• borrowed money and travelled to Scutari

• crossed Black Sea to build British hotel with salvaged materials and provided a canteen business and offered care to wounded

Seacole - impact and legacy

• nursing practices greatly influenced modern healthcare

• unwavering dedication to soldiers’ welfare set new standard of medical care in conflicts

• leadership and courage paved way for diversity in nursing

• wrote autobiography upon her return

key factors of the Battle of Alma

• heavy fire, crossed river and go up river banks

• Great and Lesser Redoubt - Campbell and 93rds capture Great redoubt, Russians retreat

• strategic positioning, artillery advantage, and troop morale.

• Raglan refused to engage cavalry, entirely infantry

• GB victory

• Russell praised Campbell’s leadership and bravery of officers

Key factors of Balaclava

• Thin Red Line tipped with steel: Highlanders did not form square. Trusted rifled musket and courageous, withstood Russian cavalry charge without fleeing

• Raglan sent in heavy brigade to protect infantry

• engaged Russian cavalry

• Scarlett’s 300: led charge of Heavy Brigade into flank of Russian cavalry. One of last great cavalry charges - corps d’elite

• Charge of Light Brigade: Raglan wishes cavalry to advance rapidly to front and prevent enemy carryiing guns away, troops of Horse Artillery may accompany

• 6am surprise attack by Russians

• Heavy brigade: 9:30am

• light brigade: 11:30am

Key factors of the siege

• 3500 sick in British camp prior to siege

• aim of war to capture Sevastopol

• due to inadequate protection from elements, Russians in raised position

• saturated blankets, no change of clothes.

• huts sent out on board ships - couldn’t unload due to state of harbour and weather

• floating about the beach - ships sunk, army couldn’t function effectively

• failed at breaching Redans and quarries until 8th September and French breached fortress at Malakoff

Russell’s view of British officers

• commissions meant many lacked war experience

• praised some where necessary

• genuinely reported

• sympathy laid with soldiers and saw their suffering

• Times didn’t edit dispatches published what they were sent

• identified Raglan’s systematic failures

Key factors of Inkerman

• Russians could no longer sustain direct conflict

• Generals couldn’t see

• stand out regiments: Coldstream and Grenadier guards

• attack to ease pressure on Sevastopol

• rained heavily night before and fog inhibited soldiers

• Russians began attack at 6am

• position only indicated by rattle of musketry

Britain in the 1850s

• redesign of sewage systems, enabling cities to grow bigger

• Victoria the monarch

• Aberdeen PM from 1852-January 1855

• Palmerston PM 1855-Feb 1858

• shift in power due to actions regarding Crimea

• fear of revolution- 3 revolutions in 1852

voting rights

Great reform act 1852: increased from 2 to 8% of population, incorporating Aristocrats, upper classes and middle class industrialists

Industrialisation

• overcrowding, exploitation, medical epidemics, extreme wealth division and child labour

• lots of trade, 3× 1840 - 1880

Congress of Vienna

• concert of Europe created: 5 powers could be problematic- Russia Prussia Britain France and Austria

• stop major power taking control

• other 4 would band together to stop them - collective security

causes of Crimean war

• preserving power balance

• protect British fundamental interests, e.g. trade routes, access via the Straits, preserve Turkey

• splendid isolation: nothing to do with European affairs until threatened

• France and Russia wanted control over Holy sites

• Russia invaded Wallachia in July 1853

• Turkey declared war in October

Britain’s entry into Crimea

• British troops left Southampton Feb 1854, 6wks before war

• technologically advanced weaponry, rifled-bore rifle

• perceived as a just war to protect trade interests and support the Ottoman Empire against Russian expansion.

Mortars

• emphasised importance of position in warfare

• short cannon that goes up and down into trench

allied troops

• joint force of over 60k troops

• from Britain, France, and the Ottoman Empire, formed to fight against Russian forces during the Crimean War.

Battle of Alma

• Fr responsible for turning left flank so GB makes full frontal assault

• Russians made undisciplined retreat and Arnaud refused to pursue them

• Russians regained Sebastopol and TodLeben prepared defences

Battle of Balaclava

• Turks driven back and Raglan arrives at vantage point on Sapoure river

• 2 comps. of Higlanders and ragtag of men from port joined last line of defence

• Scarlett led uphill charge, drove Cossacks off

• only success was recapture of W redoubts of causeway heights