Unit 0 - Science Practices: Research Methods and Data Interpretation AP PSYCH VOCAB

Hindsight Bias (I knew it all along phenomenon)

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen

Overconfidence

The tendency to believe more confident than correct

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Falsifiability

The possibility that an idea, hypothesis, or theory can be disproven by observation or experiment

Operation Definitions

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced

Peer Review

Scientific experts who evaluate a research articles theory, originality and accuracy

Experimental

The researcher sets up the environment carefully controls the variables she or he is interested in

Non-experimental

Takes place in a real life setting, and it’s not possible for the researcher to control all possible variables

Case Study

A non-experimental technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Naturalistic Observation

A non-experimental technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Surveys

A non-experimental technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

Social Desirability Bias

Bias from peoples responding in ways they presume a researcher expects or wishes

Self-report Bias

Bias when people report their behavior inaccurately

Sample

A group of people chosen to represent a larger population in a study

Population

All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

Random Sampling

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Representative Sample

A sample from a larger group that accurately represents the characteristics of a larger population. (Sample should represent the population)

Sampling Bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Convenience Sample

A non-probability sampling method where units selected for inclusion in the sample because they’re the easiest for the researcher to access

Correlation (doesn’t equal causation)

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1.00 to + 1.00)

Scatterplots

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents that values of two variables

Positive Correlation

Indicates a direct relationship

Negative Correlation

Indicates an inverse relationship

Directionality Problem

When two variables correlate and might actually have a causal relationship, but impossible to conclude which variable causes changes in the other

Third-variable Problem

A confounding variable affects both variables to make them seem causally related when they are not

Illusory Correlation

Perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship

Regression Towards the Mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) towards the average

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable)

Experimental Group

In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment that is, to one version of the independent variable

Control Group

In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment

Placebo Group

A group of participants in a clinical trial that receives a placebo, which is a treatment that looks like the real thing but contains no active ingredients

Psychology

A study of behavior and mental processes

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control group by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

Single Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which the researcher participants are ignorant (blind) about whether they have received the treatment or a placebo

Double Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the researcher participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether they have received research participants have received the treatment or a placebo

Placebo Effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone

Independent Variable

Is an experiment, that factor that is manipulated

Confounding Variable

In an experiment, a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results

Experimenter Bias

Bias caused when researchers may unintentionally influence results to confirm their own beliefs

Dependent Variable

In an experiment, the outcome that is measured

Validity

The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it’s suppose to

Generalizability

Making predictions based on past observations

Quantities Measures (e.g. Likert Scales)

Measurement of data that can be put into numbers

Qualitative Measures (e.g. Structured Interviews)

A type of information that describes traits or characteristics

Confederates

Commonly employed in psychology experiments to secretly participate along with actual subjects

Informed Consent

Giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to chose whether they wish to participate

Protection from Harm

Ensuring their physical safety, emotional well-being, privacy rights, dignity preservation during only psychological research or interviews

Confidentiality

Information between a patient and a therapist can’t be shared with anyone

Debrief

The postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and dividing by the number of scores

Median

The middle score in a distribution

Mode

The most frequently occurring scores in a distribution

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest in a distribution

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of now much scores vary around the mean score

Normal Curve (Percentages and Percentiles)

A symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data

Positive Skew

The mean is greater than (to the right of) the median

Negative Skew

The mean is less than (to the left of) the median

Biomodal Distributions

A type of statistical data distribution that has two distinct peaks, or modes, in its graph

Meta-analysis

A statistical procedure for analyzing the result of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion

Statistical Significance

A statistics, statement of how likely it is that a result (such as a difference between samples) occurred by chance, assuming there is no difference between the populations being studied

Effect Size

The strength of the relationship between two variables

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Oversees major research studies