Partisan Polarization
A vote in which a majority of Democratic legislators opposes a majority of Republican legislators.
bicameral
A lawmaking body made up of two chambers or parts.
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Partisan Polarization
A vote in which a majority of Democratic legislators opposes a majority of Republican legislators.
bicameral
A lawmaking body made up of two chambers or parts.
filibuster
An attempt to defeat a bill in the Senate by talking indefinitely, thus preventing the Senate from taking action on the bill.
descriptive representation
When citizens are represented by elected officials from their same racial/ethnic background.
legislature
A lawmaking body made up of two chambers or parts. (the legislative body of a country or state.)
majority-minority districts
Congressional district where a majority of voters are racial/ethnic minorities.
substantive representation
Ability of citizens to elect officials who will enact into law policies that the citizens favor.
marginal districts
Districts in which candidates elected to the House of Representatives win in close elections (typically, less than 55 percent of the vote).
conservative coalition
An alliance between Republicans and conservative Democrats.
majority leader
The legislative leader elected by party members holding the majority of seats in the House or the Senate.
whip
A senator or representative who helps the party leader stay informed about what party members are thinking.
minority leader
The legislative leader elected by party members holding a minority of seats in the House or the Senate.
safe districts
Districts in which incumbents win by a comfortable margin.
Speaker
The presiding officer of the House of Representatives and the leader of his or her party in the House.
party vote
A vote where most Democrats are on one side of the bill, and most Republicans are on the other.
caucus
An association of congressional members created to advance a political ideology or a regional, ethnic, or economic interest.
standing committees
Permanently established legislative committees that consider and are responsible for legislation within a certain subject area.
select committees
Congressional committees appointed for a limited time and purpose.
concurrent resolution
An expression of opinion without the force of law that requires the approval of both the House and the Senate, but not the president.
conference committee
Joint committees appointed to resolve differences in the Senate and House versions of the same bill.
joint committees
Committees on which both senators and representatives serve.
simple resolution
An expression of opinion either in the House or Senate to settle procedural matters in either body.
joint resolution
A formal expression of congressional opinion that must be approved by both houses of Congress and by the president; constitutional amendments need not be signed by the president.
open rule
An order from the House Rules Committee that permits a bill to be amended on the floor.
quorum
The minimum number of members who must be present for business to be conducted in Congress.
restrictive
An order from the House Rules Committee that permits certain kinds of amendments but not others to be made to a bill on the floor.
discharge petition
A device by which any member of the House, after a committee has had the bill for 30 days, may petition to have it brought to the floor.
riders
Amendments on matters unrelated to a bill that are added to an important bill so that they will “ride” to passage through the Congress. When a bill has many riders, it is called a Christmas-tree bill.
closed rule
An order from the House Rules Committee that sets a time limit on debate; forbids a bill from being amended on the floor.
cloture rule
A rule used by the Senate to end or limit debate.
division vote
A congressional voting procedure in which members stand and are counted.
roll-call vote
A congressional voting procedure that consists of members answering “yea” or “nay” to their names.
voice vote
A congressional voting procedure in which members shout “yea” in approval or “nay” in disapproval, permitting members to vote quickly or anonymously on bills.
double tracking
A procedure to keep the Senate going during a filibuster in which the disputed bill is shelved temporarily so that the Senate can get on with other business.
teller vote
A congressional voting procedure in which members pass between two tellers, the “yeas” first and the “nays” second.
divided government
One political party controls the White House and another political party controls one or both chambers of Congress.
veto
Literally, “I forbid”; it refers to the power of a president to disapprove a bill, and may be overridden by a two-thirds vote of each house of Congress.
unified government
The same party controls the White House and both houses of Congress.
franking privilege
The ability of members to mail letters to their constituents free of charge by substituting their facsimile signature for postage.
gridlock
The inability of the government to act because rival parties control different parts of the government.
bully pulpit
The president’s use of prestige and visibility to guide or mobilize the American public.
electoral college
The people chosen to cast each state’s votes in a presidential election. Each state can cast one electoral vote for each senator and representative it has. The District of Columbia has three electoral votes, even though it cannot elect a representative or senator.
veto message
A message from the president to Congress stating that that a bill passed in both chambers will not be signed. Must be produced within 10 days of the bill’s passage.
ad hoc structure
Several subordinates, cabinet officers, and committees report directly to the president on different matters.
pocket veto
A bill fails to become law because the president did not sign it within 10 days before Congress adjourns.
signing statement
A presidential document that reveals what the president thinks of a new law and how it ought to be enforced.
pyramid structure
A president’s subordinates report to him through a clear chain of command headed by a chief of staff.
executive orders
A presidential directive that calls for action within the executive branch.
circular structure
Several of the president’s assistants report directly to him.
cabinet
The heads of the 15 executive branch departments of the federal government.
impeachment
Charges against a president approved by a majority of the House of Representatives.
discretionary authority
The extent to which appointed bureaucrats can choose courses of action and make policies not spelled out in advance by laws.
bureaucracy
A large, complex organization composed of appointed officials.
government by proxy
Washington pays state and local governments and private groups to staff and administer federal programs.
laissez-faire
An economic theory that government should not regulate or interfere with commerce.
competitive service
The government offices to which people are appointed on the basis of merit, as ascertained by a written exam or by applying certain selection criteria.
name-request job
A job filled by a person whom an agency has already identified.
Trust funds
Funds for government programs collected and spent outside the regular government budget.
iron triangle
A close relationship between an agency, a congressional committee, and an interest group.
appropriation
A legislative grant of money to finance a government program or agency.
issue network
A network of people in Washington, D.C.—based interest groups, on congressional staffs, in universities and think tanks, and in the mass media, who regularly discuss and advocate public policies.
Authorization legislation
Legislative permission to begin or continue a government program or agency.
committee clearance
The ability of a congressional committee to review and approve certain agency decisions in advance and without passing a law.
Red tape
Complex bureaucratic rules and procedures that must be followed to get something done.
legislative veto
The authority of Congress to block a presidential action after it has taken place. The Supreme Court has held that Congress does not have this power.
judicial restraint approach
The view that judges should decide cases strictly on the basis of the language of the laws and the Constitution.
activist approach
The view that judges should discern the general principles underlying laws or the Constitution and apply them to modern circumstances.
constitutional court
A federal court, authorized by Article III of the Constitution, that keeps judges in office during good behavior and prevents their salaries from being reduced. They are the Supreme Court (created by the Constitution) and appellate and district courts created by Congress.
district courts
The lowest federal courts; federal trials can be held only here.
writ of certiorari
An order by a higher court directing a lower court to send up a case for review.
federal-question cases
Cases concerning the Constitution, federal laws, or treaties.
litmus test
An examination of the political ideology of a nominated judge.
Legislative courts
Courts created by Congress for specialized purposes, whose judges do not enjoy the protections of Article III of the Constitution.
diversity cases
Cases involving citizens of different states who can bring suit in federal courts.
courts of appeals
Federal courts that hear appeals from district courts; no trials.
in forma pauperis
A method whereby a poor person can have his or her case heard in federal court without charge.
Fee shifting
A rule that allows a plaintiff to recover costs from the defendant if the plaintiff wins.
sovereign immunity
The rule that a citizen cannot sue the government without the government’s consent.
standing
A legal rule stating who is authorized to start a lawsuit.
plaintiff
The party that initiates a lawsuit.
brief
A written statement by an attorney that summarizes a case and the laws and rulings that support it.
class-action suit
A case brought by someone to help both him- or herself and all others who are similarly situated.
amicus curiae
A brief submitted by a “friend of the court.”
stare decisis
“Let the decision stand”; allowing prior rulings to control a current case.
per curiam opinion
A brief, unsigned court opinion.
opinion of the Court
A signed opinion of a majority of the Supreme Court.
concurring opinion
A signed opinion in which one or more members agree with the majority view but for different reasons.
dissenting opinion
A signed opinion in which one or more justices disagree with the majority view.
political question
An issue the Supreme Court will allow the executive and legislative branches to decide.
remedy
A judicial order enforcing a right or redressing a wrong.