GCSE Classical Civilizations Revision Guide: War and Warfare

Flashcards on Sparta, Athens, and Rome at war, covering their military structures, tactics, key battles, and prominent figures.

Helots

Enslaved laborers in Sparta who worked the land and handed over a proportion of their produce to their masters.

Perioeci

Free inhabitants of Sparta who lived in less fertile areas, worked as craftsmen and traders, and followed Sparta in matters of war and foreign policy.

Agoge

Spartan education system aimed to prepare boys to become highly trained and loyal citizens from birth.

Krypteia

A period of survival training for the strongest Spartan youths, involving minimal rations and potential killing of helots considered threats.

Syssitia

Dining clubs of around fifteen Spartan citizens that promoted comradeship and intergenerational interaction.

Hoplite

A fully-armed Spartan soldier.

Phalanx

Rectangular formation of soldiers packed together, charging at the opposition while thrusting spears.

Mora

The largest sub-division of the Spartan army.

Enomotia

The smallest unit of the Spartan army, made up of an estimated forty men.

Taxiarch

Senior officer in the Spartan army responsible for the kings.

Tresantes

Spartans who deserted battle and were deprived of citizenship.

Battle of Thermopylae

A battle in 480 BC where a small Greek force, including 300 Spartans led by King Leonidas, bravely resisted a much larger Persian army led by King Xerxes.

Athenian Soldiers

Adult male Athenian citizens expected to serve in the military.

Lochoi

Units into which the Athenian army's ten regiments were subdivided

Strategos

Elected general from each tribe who made decisions for the Athenian army.

Triremes

Long, thin ships with a bronze-plated ram extending from the front, the primary warships of the Athenian navy.

Liturgy

A super-tax on Athens’ wealthiest citizens to fund the navy.

Trierarch

Wealthy Athenian who captained and paid for the upkeep of a trireme for one year.

Diekplous

Naval maneuver involving sailing through a gap in the enemy line and turning to ram the enemy ship.

Hypozomata

Cables that kept the ship in shape and gave greater strength when ramming.

Lochoi

Units of a tribal regiment in the Athenian army.

Battle of Salamis

Naval battle in 480 BC where the Athenian-led Greek fleet decisively defeated the Persian fleet, a crucial victory for the Greeks.

Diekplous

A naval maneuver whereby a trireme sailed through the enemy line of ships and turned at pace to ram the side of an enemy ship.

Hypozomata

Two stretched cables that were tied from one end of a trireme to another and kept it in shape

Contubernium

A unit of eight men in the Roman army who shared the same tent and dealt with their own mess arrangements.

Century

A unit of around 80 men in a Roman legion.

Cohort

The largest unit of a legion, made up of six centuries (except the first cohort, which had five double-sized centuries).

Legion

The largest unit of the Roman army, made up of ten cohorts.

Primi ordines

The five centurions of the first cohort, the most senior members of the legion.

Primus pilus

The highest senior centurion in the legion, a figure of importance to the whole legion.

Signifier

The standard bearer who looked after the military emblem of the century.

Optio

The person responsible for training in the century.

Tesserarius

The soldier in charge of organizing the guards and communicating passwords.

Cornicen

The horn-player in a legion who sounded orders to soldiers.

Legatus

Commander of the legion, of Senatorial rank and appointed by the emperor.

Tribunus laticlavius

A tribune of Senatorial rank, holding senior status, who wore the broad purple senatorial stripe on his toga.

Tribune angusticlavi

Five tribunes who came from the equestrian class and wore a narrow purple stripe on their togas.

Camp prefect

The most senior professional soldier in the legion, responsible for all equipment and transport.

Aquilifier

Soldier responsible for protecting the legion’s Aquila and carrying it into battle.

Legionary Fortress

Headquarters of the legion, typically rectangular in shape and defended by a ditch, wall, and towers.

Principia

The administrative heart of the fortress.

Via praetorian

Road from the main gate to the principia in a fortress

Via principalis

The road crossing the fortress in front of the principia in a fortress

Via Quintana

Road crossing the fortress behind the principia in a fortress

Praetorium

Private quarters of the legatus in a fortress.

Auxiliary Troops

Troops commanded by men of equestrian rank who lived in their own forts, separate from legionaries.

Ala

The most important unit of the auxiliary, made up of 512 men, divided into squadrons of 32 horsemen (a turma).

Navarch

Officers in charge of ship squadrons in the Roman navy.

Liburnae

Light military ships used for scouting

Ballista

A crossbow that fired iron darts.

Onager

A catapult that fired rocks and large stone at enemies.

Ala

Cohort of Roman cavalry, estimated to be made up of 512 men

Aquila

the emblem of the legion – an eagle made of gold set on a pole

Basilica

The large hall used for assemblies in a legionary fortress

Camp prefect

Right hand man to the legatus in a legion

Imperial Period

The period from 30 BC, when Rome was ruled by Emperors

Legatus

Commander of a legion

Legion

The largest unit of the Roman army

Navarch

Captain of a squadron of naval ships

Optio

The deputy of the centurion

Signifier

The soldier who was responsible for the standards of the century

Testudo

Roman soldiers who advanced in formation with shields over their heads

Tribune angusticlavi

The five tribunes of equestrian rank in a legion

Tribunus laticlavius

The senior tribune of a Roman legion, of Senatorial rank

Battle of Actium

Battle in 31 BC where Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra, leading to the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire.

Princeps

Roman title meaning ‘first citizen.’

Augustus

Title given to Octavian by the Senate, meaning to increase/enrich/praise.

Trajan

Roman emperor from AD 98 until his death in AD 117

Decebalus

Leader of the Dacians

Trajan’s Campaign Against the Dacians

Dacian Wars

Capitoline Hill

One of the seven original hills of Rome; it was the political and ceremonial heart of the city

Triumph

A grand procession through the streets of Rome to celebrate a military victory