CPI FINALS

Plastics

are materials that are largely organic and usually based on synthetic resins or modified polymers of natural origin

Thermoplastic

are materials that soften when heated and harden when cooled. This process can be repeated indefinitely. Because of this behavior, thermoplastics are recyclable to some extent

Thermosets

materials harden when heated or, in some cases, when they are treated with certain chemicals. After the initial set, thermoset materials no longer soften when heated. They are not recyclable except as inert fill in concrete or other materials

polymers

are long chains of repeating units formed from shorter molecules.

polysaccharides, cellulose, proteins, and rubber

the most representative of natural polymers

parkesine

The first synthetic plastic, a form of cellulose nitrate called _______ invented by A. Parker.

gulta-percha,

made from the sap of rubber trees. It could be molded into shapes that would harden. This early form of “plastic” was used for tool handles and similar applications

Bakelite.

L. Baekland developed another synthetic plastic material, phenol formaldehyde

polyethylene(PE)

One of the most significant early applications was the use of________ to waterproof the wires and other components in radar, sonar, and similar equipment

NAPHTHA

THE PRIMARY RAW MATERIAL USED TO PRODUCE SYNTHETIC POLYMERS I

PETROLEUM.

NAPHTHA IS DERIVED FROM ________

NATURAL GAS.

THE SECOND MOST COMMON RAW MATERIAL

1. ADDITION REACTIONS

2. CONDENSATION REACTIONS

Two types of polymerization reactions

Polymer

A CONGLOMERATE OF VERY LONG MOLECULE CHAINS

LOW DENSITY

FORMABILITY

STRENGTH AND DAMAGE RESISTANCE

ECONOMICS

CHARACTERISTICS OF PLASTICS

LOW DENSITY

CHARACTERISTICS OF PLASTICS: makes the use of plastics attractive when compared to other materials because of the weight saving

FORMABILITY

CHARACTERISTICS OF PLASTICS: Many plastics are available in a variety of forms, film, sheet, foam, and so on

STRENGTH AND DAMAGE RESISTANCE

CHARACTERISTICS OF PLASTICS: Plastics are strong and lightweight materials. On a pound for pound comparison, several plastics are stronger than steel

ECONOMICS

CHARACTERISTICS OF PLASTICS: savings in transport costs, lower liability claims, and other savings. allow companies to move into and out of a market quickly

1. PETE

2. HDPE

3. PVC/V

4. LDPE

5. PP

6. PS

7. OTHER

TYPES OF PLASTICS

PET

Identify the plastic type: HIGH TENSILE STREGTH

HDPE

Identify the plastic type: HAS TRANSLUCENT, MILKY WHITE APPEARRANCE

PVC

Identify the plastic type: Environmental and health issue

LDPE

Identify the plastic type: Most widely used plastic High Elongation

PP

Identify the plastic type: Used for ovenable containers

PS

Identify the plastic type Can be foamed or unfoamed

EXTRUSION

is a continuous process where melted plastic is forced through a shaped die to create long shapes such as pipes, sheets, or profiles. It's efficient for high-volume production of uniform products

COEXTRUSION

involves the simultaneous extrusion of multiple layers of different plastics to create a single product with layered properties—commonly used for barrier packaging. Each layer can have unique characteristics like flexibility, strength, or gas permeability

Film casting

involves extruding a plastic melt onto a cooled drum or chill roll, forming a thin, flat plastic film. It offers high clarity and uniform thickness, making it ideal for packaging applications

film blowing

molten plastic is extruded through a circular die and inflated into a bubble. The bubble is then flattened and wound into rolls. This method is commonly used for making plastic bags and agricultural films.

INJECTION MOLDING

involves injecting molten plastic into a mold cavity where it cools and solidifies. It's used to produce complex, high-precision parts like bottle caps, automotive components, and containers.

EXTRUSION BLOW MOLDING

In this method, a plastic tube (parison) is extruded and then expanded inside a mold using air pressure, forming hollow objects such as bottles and containers

THERMOFORMING

uses heat to soften a plastic sheet, which is then shaped over a mold using vacuum or pressure. It's often used for clamshell packaging, trays, and disposable cups

Lamination

is the process of bonding multiple layers of plastic films or combining plastic with other materials like paper or foil to improve strength, appearance, or barrier properties.

kerosene

The chief petroleum product sold was _______ for illuminating purposes

Gravimetric Survey

Seismic Survey

Two main detection methods

Gravimetric Survey

This method measures small changes in the earth’s gravity caused by differences in the density of underground structures like domes or oil pools.

Seismic Survey

This technique involves detonating dynamite and measuring the reflection times of the shock waves to map underground formations

hydrocarbons (83–87% carbon, 11–15% hydrogen)

Crude petroleum consists mainly of

OPEN CHAIN OR ALIPHATIC COMPOUNDS AND

RING COMPOUNDS

HYDROCARBONS ARE DIVIDED INTO TWO CHEMICAL CLASSES

n-Paraffin Series(Major fraction of most petroleums)

Isoparaffin Series

Olefin Series

Open Chain or Aliphatic Compounds

Naphthene Series

. Aromatic (Benzene) Series

Ring Compounds in Petroleum

Paraffin Base

Intermediate Base

Naphthene Base

Classification of Petroleum Crudes Based on Composition Variability Before Refining

Petroleum Base Types

Natural (or casing-head) gasoline and natural gas.

Light Distillates

Intermediate Distillates

Heavy Distillates

Residues

Classification of Petroleum Products by Fractionation in Refining

Natural gas

occurs as accumulations in underground, porous reservoirs either with or without petroleum oil

paraffin

Natural gas mainly contains ______ hydrocarbons

fuel, natural gasoline, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), carbon black, helium, hydrogen, and petrochemicals

Major products from natural gas include

LIGHT DISTILLATES

Include naphthas, refined oils, aviation gasoline, motor gasoline, petroleum solvents, and kerosene

Gasoline

is the most important light distillate and overall petroleum product.

Octane number

measures fuel resistance to knocking, with aviation gasoline often

Knocking

(violent detonation in engines)

Naphtha

is a light oil between gasoline and kerosene, widely used as a solvent in paints and dry cleaning.

INTERMEDIATE DISTILLATES

Include gas oil, heavy furnace oil, cracking stock, Diesel fuel oil, and absorber oil

Distillates

can be cracked into gasoline or blended with heavy tar for fuel oil and cutback asphalt (for road use)

Diesel fuel

is a special grade of gas oil, requiring strict control of viscosity.

Heavy distillates

provide lubricating oils, waxes, and heavy oils

Paraffin Wax

Produced as crude scale wax and refined through sweating, crystallization, acid treatment, and clay percolation.

Residues

Include asphalt, fuel-oil residual, greases, coke, and petrolatum.

stills

The typical refinery consists of one or more units called

Topping

involves the simple distillation of the more highly volatile materials, or what may be called tops, from the crude oil.

1.Fluid Flow

2.Heat Transfer

3.Distillation

4.Absorption

5.Adsorption

6.Filtration

7.Extraction

Basic Unit Operations in the Separation Process in Refining

FLUID FLOW

refers to how oil, gas, and water move through rocks underground, wells, pipelines, and processing equipment during exploration, production, refining, and transportation.

HEAT TRANSFER

y refers to how heat is added, removed, or moved during different stages of oil and gas production, refining, and transport.

Absorption

is generally used to separate a higher-boiling constituent from other components of a system of vapors and gases.

Adsorption

is employed for about the same purpose as absorption

used to remove undesirable colors from lubricating oil, usually with activated clay

FILTRATION

is the usual method for removal of wax from wax distillate

EXTRACTION

involves the removal of a component from a liquid by means of the solvent action of another liquid. The procedure of selective extraction by means of solvents is important in the further refining of lubricating oils

CRACKING

is the process of converting large molecules into sma ler ones by the application of heat and/or catalysts.

cracking process

is the greatest force for conservation that has been developed in the oil industry.

Fluid Catalytic Cracking

a modern refinery process that uses a powdered catalyst (like zeolite) and high-temperature conditions to crack heavy hydrocarbons into lighter, more valuable products like gasoline, diesel, and LPG

Catalytic Cracking

a process where large hydrocarbon molecules in petroleum are broken into smaller, more useful ones

Thermal Cracking

an older method where petroleum is simply heated to very high temperatures (450–750°C) without any catalyst to break down large molecules. whereas the intense heat cracks the hydrocarbons into smaller molecules like alkenes

REFORMING

is a chemical process where low quality hydrocarbons are rearranged to make higher octane gasoline and valuable chemicals like aromatics (benzene, toluene, xylene).

polymers.

is a chemical process that involves the combination of small molecules called monomers into larger, more complex molecules

Cationic Polymerization

this involves the use of a catalyst to initiate the polymerization process, typically forming branched or linear polymers. It’s used for olefins like propylene and butylene.

ALKYLATION

a process that combines smaler molecules, typica ly olefins (such as propylene or butylene) and isobutane, to produce alkylates— high-octane compounds used in gasoline blending

Sulfuric Acid Alkylation

this method uses sulfuric acid as a catalyst to promote the alkylation reaction. It's commonly used in many refineries and is known for its high efficiency in producing high-quality alkylates

Hydrofluoric Acid Alkylation

his method hydrofluoric acid is used as a catalyst.

HYDROGENATION

a chemical process in which hydrogen is added to unsaturated hydrocarbons (such as alkenes, alkynes, or aromatics) in the presence of a catalyst.

Hydrocracking

involves hydrogenating heavy hydrocarbons to break them into lighter, more valuable products like gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel. The process combines cracking and hydrogenation.

Hydrotreating

- a mild form of hydrogenation used primarily to remove sulfur, nitrogen, and other impurities from petroleum products like diesel, kerosene, and jet fuel.

Hydrodesulfurization (HDS)

A specific type of hydrogenation aimed at removing sulfur from crude oil and its derivatives to meet regulatory requirements for low-sulfur fuels

CHLORINATION

is a chemical process in which chlorine or chlorine-containing compounds are introduced into hydrocarbons or petroleum products

Direct Chlorination

Chlorine is directly added to the hydrocarbon feedstock, forming chlorinated products. This is often used in producing specific chemicals like methyl chloride, ethyl chloride, or vinyl chloride

Catalytic Chlorination

- In some applications, a catalyst may be used to promote the chlorination of hydrocarbons, especially for producing specific chlorinated compounds at lower temperatures and pressures

ISOMERIZATION

a process that involves the rearrangement of the molecular structure of hydrocarbons to convert them into their isomers molecules with the same molecular formula but different structural arrangements.

Catalytic Isomerization

is the most common method of isomerization, where a catalyst (typically platinum or rhenium on an alumina support) is used to rearrange the molecules.

Thermal Isomerization

high temperatures are used to induce the isomerization of hydrocarbons without a catalyst

ESTERIFICATION

a chemical reaction that involves the formation of esters by combining an acid (often a carboxylic acid) with an alcohol in the presence of a catalyst

Transesterification

a specific form of esterification where vegetable oils or animal fats react with alcohol (usually methanol or ethanol) in the presence of a catalyst to form biodiesel and glycerol as a byproduct.

Direct Esterification

an acid (such as acetic acid or other carboxylic acids) reacts with an alcohol to produce an ester and water

Hydrotreating

uses hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst to remove impurities such as sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen from petroleum fractions like diesel and jet fuel

Hydrodesulfurization

A specific type of hydrotreating aimed at removing sulfur from petroleum products, particularly to meet environmental regulations for low-sulfur fuels

Demulsification

The process of separating water and impurities from crude oil to prevent emulsions from forming, which could complicate refining and reduce product quality

Solvent extraction

is used to remove aromatic hydrocarbons and other impurities

De-waxing and Dewaxing

used to remove wax from petroleum products

pharmaceutical industry

is responsible for discovering, developing, producing, and distributing medicines that help prevent and treat diseases in humans and animals.

London Pharmacopoeia

became the first national pharmacopoeia

Pharmacology

The study of drugs, their sources, their nature, and their properties

Drug

Any substance which, when taken into the body, alters the body’s function either physically or psychologically