language and thought

Cognitive miser

person who uses as little mental effort as possible when thinking or making decisions (why we make bad decisions)

Inductive reasoning

Making general conclusions from specific evidence (small → big

Deductive reasoning

Using general ideas to make specific conclusions (big → small)

Syntax

Rules for how we arrange words to make meaningful sentences (meaning)

Grammer

The structure and rules of a language (structure)

Genie

girl who didn’t learn language until age 8; her case shows language can be learned during a sensitive period but not fully after the critical period

Homesign

homemade sign language created by deaf kids with hearing families who don’t use sign language

Symbolic

Language uses sounds, words, or images that don’t have built-in meaning—they represent ideas (tree)

Generative

We can mix and match language parts to create endless new words and messages

Structure

Language has rules so we can understand each other

Semantic

How we understand word meanings

Denotation

The dictionary definition of a word

Connotation

The emotional or cultural meaning of a word (snake=sneaky)

Sociocultural theory

We learn language by watching and interacting with others

Behaviorist theory

Language is learned through rewards and reinforcement

Nativist theory

Humans are born ready to learn language

Language acquisition device

A built in brain system that helps us understand and produce speech

Interactionist theory

Combines all theories—language develops through biology and social interaction

Phonemes

smallest unit of sound in speech that forms a language

Morphemes

smallest unit of meaning in language

Ex. cat" (one morpheme)

• "cats" (two morphemes: "cat" + "s")

Receptive vocabulary

Words you understand when you hear or read them.

Productive vocabulary

Words you actually use in convo.

Telegraphic speech

Simple sentences used by children, often with just the essential words (subject + verb)

Overextension

Using word too broadly or for more things than its should apply to

Underextension

Using a word too narrowly—only for specific examples, even though the word should apply to more

Overegularization

Applying regular grammar rules to words that don’t follow them (like adding “-s” to make a plural)

Field dependence

Focusing on the overall context or background of a situation

Field independence

Focusing on specific parts or details, ignoring the background

Rod and frame test

test used to measure field dependence vs. independence by asking people to align a rod within a tilted frame.

Irrelevant information

Paying attention to unnecessary details that distract from solving a problem

Mental sets

Using old strategies that worked before, even when they no longer apply

Functional fixedness

Only seeing objects for their functional use, not other possible uses

Unnecessary Contraints

Believing there are rules or limits in a problem that arent actually there

Anticipated regret

Making choices are based on what we believe we’ll regret later

Theory of bounded rationality

People don’t make good decisions- they use shortcuts and pick whats “good enough”

Conjunction fallacy

Thinking two events together are more likely than just one

Recognition heuristic

We choose the option we’ve heard of before

Hindsight bias

After something happens, we believe we “knew it all along”

Affect heuristic

Making decisions based on feelings instead of logic

Alternative outcomes effect (Gambler’s fallacy)

Thinking past results affect future random event

Anchoring heuristic

The tendency to rely heavily on the first piece of information we receive when making decisions or estimates

Availability heuristic

We judge things based in how easily we remember them

Confirmation bias

We focus on info that supports what we already believe and ignore the rest

Overconfidence

Thinking you’re more accurate or skilled than you actually are

Ostrich bias

Ignoring negative info to protect your emotions