The Gilded Age

Transcontinental Railroad

Railroad completed in 1869 that connected the eastern United States with the Pacific Coast. It encouraged western settlement, trade, immigration, and economic growth while accelerating the destruction of Native American lands and cultures.

Interstate Commerce Act (1887)

Federal law that created the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to regulate railroad practices and prevent unfair rates and discrimination. It was one of the first major attempts by the federal government to regulate big business.

Granger Movement

Farmers' movement that began with the Grange, an organization founded in 1867 to improve farmers' economic and social conditions. Grangers pushed for regulation of railroads and grain elevators and supported state "Granger laws."

Laissez-faire

Economic philosophy advocating minimal government interference in business and the economy. Many Gilded Age business leaders used laissez-faire ideas to oppose government regulation.

Vertical integration

Business strategy in which a company controls different stages of production and distribution. Andrew Carnegie, for example, controlled mines, railroads, and steel production to reduce costs

Horizontal integration

Business strategy in which a company buys or merges with competing companies in the same industry. John D. Rockefeller used horizontal integration to dominate the oil industry.

Trust

A legal arrangement in which several companies transferred control of their stock to a group of , allowing one organization to control multiple companies. became a major symbol of concentrated corporate power during the Gilded Age

Social Darwinism

Application of Charles Darwin's ideas about natural selection to human society and economics. It was used by some wealthy Americans to argue that economic success reflected "survival of the fittest" and that government should not interfere extensively with competition

Gospel of Wealth

 Idea promoted by Andrew Carnegie that wealthy people had a moral responsibility to use their fortunes for the benefit of society through philanthropy. Carnegie argued that wealth should be used to improve society rather than simply passed down to heirs

Sherman Antitrust Act (1890)

Federal law intended to prohibit business combinations that restrained trade. It was the first major federal antitrust law, although its early enforcement was weak and it was sometimes used against labor unions

New Immigration

Wave of immigrants arriving primarily from southern and eastern Europe beginning in the late 19th century, including Italians, Poles, Russians, and other groups. Their arrival contributed to rapid urban growth and increased nativist opposition.

Urbanization

Growth of cities as people moved from rural areas and immigrants arrived seeking industrial jobs. Rapid urbanization produced both economic opportunities and problems such as overcrowding, poor sanitation, and inadequate housing

Tenements

Crowded, inexpensive apartment buildings in urban neighborhoods, often occupied by poor immigrant families. Many had poor ventilation, sanitation, and living conditions

Nativism

Favoritism toward native-born Americans and opposition to immigration. Nativists often argued that immigrants threatened American jobs, culture, religion, or political institutions

Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)

Federal law that prohibited Chinese laborers from immigrating to the United States. It was the first major federal law restricting immigration based on nationality and remained in effect, in various forms, for decades

Political machine

An organized political group that maintained power by exchanging government jobs and services for political support. Machines were especially influential in rapidly growing cities

Patronage

The practice of giving government jobs or other benefits to political supporters. Political machines and presidents used patronage to reward loyalty

Spoils system

The practice of giving government positions to members and supporters of the victorious political party. Critics argued it encouraged corruption and placed political loyalty above qualifications

Tammany Hall

Powerful Democratic political machine in New York City. Led by figures such as William "Boss" Tweed, it provided services to immigrants and the poor while also becoming associated with corruption

Pendleton Civil Service Act (1883)

Law that established a merit-based federal civil service system and required competitive examinations for some government positions. It reduced the use of patronage and the spoils system in federal employmene government positions.

Great Railroad Strike (1877)

Nationwide railroad workers' strike caused by wage cuts and poor working conditions. Violence and federal intervention occurred in several cities, demonstrating growing tensions between industrial workers, corporations, and government

Haymarket Affair (1886)

Labor protest in Chicago that became violent when a bomb was thrown at police. The event damaged the public reputation of the labor movement and increased fears of radicalism and anarchism

Homestead Strike (1892)

Major strike at Carnegie's Homestead steel plant in Pennsylvania. A violent confrontation between striking workers and private security forces ended with the union being defeated, weakening organized labor

Pullman Strike (1894)

Strike by workers at the Pullman Palace Car Company after wage cuts while rents remained high. President Grover Cleveland sent federal troops to break the strike, demonstrating the federal government's willingness to intervene on behalf of business and against disruptive strikes

Jim Crow

System of racial segregation and discrimination established primarily in the South after Reconstruction. Jim Crow laws restricted African Americans' political, social, and economic rights and were upheld by local and state governments

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

Supreme Court case that upheld racial segregation under the doctrine of "separate but equal." The decision provided constitutional justification for segregation for decades

Homestead Act (1862)

Law that offered 160 acres of public land to settlers who agreed to live on and improve the land for a specified period. It encouraged western settlement but also contributed to the loss of Native American lands

Dawes Severalty Act (1887)

Law that divided tribal lands into individual allotments in an effort to assimilate Native Americans into American society. It weakened tribal institutions and resulted in the loss of millions of acres of Native American land

Little Bighorn (1876)

Battle in which Lakota Sioux and Cheyenne forces led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse defeated Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer and his troops. The victory temporarily halted U.S. military efforts in the region but ultimately led to intensified federal pressure on Native Americans

Ghost Dance

Native American religious movement that promised the restoration of Native lands and traditional ways of life and the disappearance of white settlers. Federal authorities viewed the movement as a threat, contributing to tensions that culminated at Wounded Knee

Wounded Knee (1890)

Massacre in South Dakota in which U.S. Army troops killed hundreds of Lakota men, women, and children. It is commonly regarded as the symbolic end of major armed Native American resistance on the Great Plains

Populism

Political movement that grew out of the Farmers' Alliances and formed the People's Party in the 1890s. Populists called for policies such as free silver, government regulation of railroads, a graduated income tax, and political reforms to strengthen farmers and ordinary citizens against concentrated corporate power

Frontier Thesis

Historian Frederick Jackson Turner's 1893 argument that the American frontier played a major role in shaping American democracy, individualism, and national character. Turner argued that the closing of the frontier marked an important turning point in American history.