HHD EXAM REVISION

Define health and wellbeing (word for word)

Health and wellbeing relates to the state of a person’s physical, social, emotional, mental and spiritual existence and is characterised by an equilibrium in which the individual feels happy, healthy, capable and engaged.

Illness meaning (word for word)

Illness relates to a person'‘s experience with disease (or injury) and can be influenced by a range of factors.

Subjective meaning (word for word)

Subjective relates to how something means different things to different people

Dynamic meaning (word for word)

Dynamic refers to how (HWB and illness) are in a constant state of change

Define physical health and wellbeing (word for word)

Physical health relates to the functioning of the body and its systems, it includes the physical capacity to perform daily activities or tasks.

Define social health and wellbeing (word for word)

Social health relates to the ability to form meaningful and satisfying relationships with others and the ability to manage or adapt appropriately to different social situations.

Define mental health and wellbeing (word for word)

Mental health is the current state of well-being relating to the mind or brain and it relates to the ability to think and process information. A mentally healthy brain enables an individual to positively form opinions, make decisions and use logic.

Define emotional health and wellbeing (word for word)

Emotional health relates to the ability to express feelings in a positive way. Emotional health is about the positive management and expression of emotional actions and reactions as well as the ability to display resilience.

Define spiritual health and wellbeing (word for word)

Spiritual health relates to ideas, beliefs, values and ethics that arise in the minds and conscience of human beings. It can relate to morals, values, a sense of purpose in life, connection or belonging.

5 key terminology for physical health and wellbeing

1. healthy body weight

2. freedom from illness, disease and injury

3. ability to complete daily tasks

4. strong immune system

5. appropriate levels of fitness

4 key terminology for social health and wellbeing

1. supportive network of friends

2. meaningful and satisfying relationships

3. supporting and well-functioning family

4. ability to manage or adapt to different social situations

3 key terminology for mental health and wellbeing

1. low levels of stress and anxiety

2. ability to think and process information

3. high levels of confidence

3 key terminology for emotional health and wellbeing

1. high levels of resilience

2. effectively respond to and manage emotions

3. experience appropriate emotions in different scenarios

3 key terminology for spiritual health and wellbeing

1. positive meaning and purpose in life

2. peace and harmony

3. acting according to beliefs and values

how many links for relationship vs impact?

relationship - 2 way link
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impact - 1 way link

Health as a resource benefits individual (3 examples)

1. earn an income

2. reduced risk of illness/death/stress/anxiety

3. can concentrate of work/schoo/studies

Health as a resource benefits national (3 examples)

1. higher average incomes

2. improved healthcare costs

3. greater social particiation

Health as a resource benefits global (3 examples)

1. reduced transmission of disease between countries

2. increased peace and security

3. greater productivity for trade → economic development

Define health status (word for word)

Health status refers to an individual’s or population’s overall health, taking into account various aspects such as life expectancy, risk factors etc.

Define self assessed health status (word for word)

Self assessed health status refers to an indvidual’s own opinion about how they feel about their health, their state of mind or life in general, often collected in population surverys.

Define life expectancy (word for word)

Life expectancy refers to the number of years of life, on average, remaining to an individual at a particular age if death rates do not change.

Define health adjusted life expectancy (HALE) (word for word)

Health adjusted life expectancy refers to the average length of time an individual at a specific age can expect to live in full health; that is, time lived without the health consequences of disease or injury.

Define mortality (word for word)

Mortality refers to the number of deaths in a population, in a given period.

Define infant mortality (word for word)

Infant mortality refers to the death rates of infants who die before their first birthday, per 1,000 live births.

Define under 5 mortality rate (U5MR) (word for word)

Under 5 mortality rate refers to the number of deaths of children under 5 years of age, per 1,000 live births.

Define maternal mortality (word for word)

Maternal mortality refers to the number of mothers who die as a result of pregnancy or childbirth, up to 6 weeks after delivery.

Define morbidity (word for word)

Morbidity refers to levels of ill health in an indivudal and levels of ill health within a population, at a given time.

Define incidence (word for word)

Incidence refers to the number of new cases of a disease/condition in a population at a given period.

Define prevalence (word for word)

Prevalence refers to the total number of cases of a particular disease/condition in a population at a given period.

Define burden of disease (word for word)

Burden of disease refers to a measure of the impact of diseases and injuries, specifically, it measures the gap between current health status and an ideal situation where everyone lives to an old age, free from disease and disability.

Define disability adjusted life years (DALY) (word for word)

A measure of burden of disease. One DALY equals one year of healthy life lost to ill health and/or premature death.

Define years of life lost (YLL) (word for word)

A measure of how many years of expected life lost are lost due to premature death.

Define years lost due to disability (YLD) (word for word)

A measure of how many healthy years of life are lost due to disease, injury or disability.

How do you calculate DALY?

YLL + YLD = DALY

What can smoking and vaping cause? (4 ideas)

1. Tobacco smoke reduces amount of oxygen in the blood → increasing blood pressure + heart rate → stroke/heart attack
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2. Chemicals in cigarettes → cause faults in cells → abnormal cell growth/tumours → lung cancer
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3. Harmful toxins/chemicals → cross placenta to bloodstream of foetus → negative foetal development
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4. Tobacco → lower immune system fucntion → increased susceptibility to infectious diseases → pneumonia/inflluenza

What can alcohol cause (4 ideas)

1. Excessive alcohol → impair judgement → aggression/violence OR drunk driving → injury
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2. Alcohol → high in kilojoules → if not used, it is stored as adipose tissue → weight gain → obesity
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3. Alcohol → filtered through the liver → excessive consumption → scarring of liver tissue → cirrohis/liver failiure
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4. Alcohol consumption while pregnant → increased risk of premature birth/low birth weight/foetal alcohol syndrome

What can overweight and obesity cause (4 ideas)

1. Excess weight → strain on joints → arthiritis/musculoskeletal conditions
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2. Abdominal fat → associated with increased cholesterol levels and plaque buildup → narrowing arteries → reducing blood supply → heart works harder → heart attack/stroke
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3. Excess weight → inflammation of body tissues → damaged genes within cells → cancer
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4. Obesity → lowers insulin secretion → fluctuations of insulin and blood glucose levels → impaired glucose regulation → type 2 diabetes

What can underconsumption of fruit and vegetables cause (3 ideas)

1. Fruit and vegetables → keep individuals full (satiated) → underconsumption → increases chance people snack between meals → consumprion of energy dense foods → obesity
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2. Fruit and vegetables → assist in reducing plaque build in arteries that may cause blockages → through antioxidants → cardiovascular disease
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3. Fruit and vegetables → assist in digestion (fibre) → underconsumption → constipation/colorectal cancer

What can a high intake of fat cause (3 points)

1. Fat is energy-dense → high intake → storage in adipose tissue → if energy is not used → overweight/obesity
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2. High intake of fat → atherosclerosis → narrowing of the walls of the arteries → plaque buildup in blood vessels → heart works harder → CVD
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3. Fat → obesity → lower insulin secretion → fluctuation in insulin and blood glucose levels → type 2 diabetes
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What can a high intake of salt cause (2 points)

1. Salt → draws fluid out of cells → increases blood volume → hypertension → CVD
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2. Salt → calcium excretion during urine → osteoporosis

What can a high intake of sugar cause (2 points)

1. Sugar → used as fuel for energy production → consumed in excess → stored as adipose tissue → obesity
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2. Sugar → food source for bacteria → bacteria produce acids → decay of tooth enamel → development of dental caries → periodontitis

What can an underconsumption of dairy cause (2 points)

1. Dairy → calcium needed for bone strength → underconsumption → weak and brittle bones that fracture easily → osteoporosis
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2. Dairy → calcium → weakened teeth and increased risk of dental decay → dental caries → periodontitis

Biological factors (5) and definition

Biological factors relate to the structure of the cells, tissues and systems of the body and how adequately they function.
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1. body weight

2. blood pressure

3. hormones

4. cholesterol levels

5. genetics

Sociocultrual factors (7) and definition

Sociocultural factors relate to the social and cultural conditions into which people are born, grow, live, work and age.

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1. socioeconomic status

2. employment status

3. food security

4. access to healthcare (cultrual/financial barriers)

5. commercial factors (6 sub groups)

6. social networks

7. cultural traditions/background

Commercial factors (6) and definition

Commerical factors relate to the conditions, action and policies of corporate organisations that impact health and wellbeing, either positively or negatively

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1. supply chains

2. product design

3. packaging and labelling

4. distribuition and affordability

5. lobbying

6. marketing strategies and use of media

Enviornmental factors (4) and definition

Enviornmental factors relate to the physical surroundings, in which we live, work, and play.

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1. housing

2. work enviornment

3. geographical location and infrastructure

4. climate and climate change

Define old public health (word for word)

Old public health relates to government actions that focused on changing the physical enviornment to prevent the spread of disease.

Define health promotion (word for word)

Health promotion refers to the process of enabling people to increase control over and improve their health.

Old public health initiatives (6)

1. Improved sanitation

2. Introduction of mass vaccination programs

3. Improved access to clean water

4. Improved housing and living conditions

5. Safer birthing practices

6. Quarantine and control of infectious diseases

Define the biomedical model (word for word)

The biomedical model focuses on the physical or biological aspects of disease and illness.

What are the biomedical model key features (4)

1. Focuses on individuals

2. Looks at the disease itself

3. Relies on technology to diagnose, treat and cure

4. Relies on services provided by doctors, specialists and hospitals

Strengths of biomedical model (3)

1. Provides treatment for many medical conditions improving health status

2. Enables us to improve the health status of the population, reducing costs to the healthcare system

3. Reduces the amount of time people spend in ill-health, improving individual health and wellbeing

Limitations of the biomedical model (4)

1. Focuses on treatment rather than prevention

2. Can be expensive

3. Does not promote equality

4. Not every disease/illness can be cured

Define the social model of health (word for word)

The social model of health focuses on addressing the physical, sociocultural, and political environments of health that have an impact on individuals and population groups.

Strengths of the social model (4)

1. Focuses on the underlying causes of health

2. Focuses on the health of (vulnerable) populations

3. Education can be passed on

4. More cost effective as it focuses on prevention

Limitations of the social model

1. Not every condition can be prevented

2. Does not address the needs of individuals

3. Does not provide cures

4. Health promotion messages can be ignored

Define the ottawa charter (word for word)

The ottawa charter developed by the WHo, aims to reduce inequalities in health and reflects the social model.

Ottawa charter 5 action areas (Bad Cats Smell Dead Rats)

1. Build healthy public policy - Laws and regulations that promote health

2. Create supportive environments - Making healthier choices easier by providing an environment that promotes health

3. Strengthen community action - Groups working towards a common goal

4. Develop personal skills - Providing education to take control over and improve health individually

5. Reorient health services - Focus on prevention rather than treatment

What is the role of health promotion? (Define)

The role of health promotion is to create conditions that encourage healthier lives and present in health, as opposed to the biomedical model that works to treat conditions once they arise.

Define social justice

Social justice relates to fairness within society.

What are the 4 social justice principles and definitions?

1. Human rights → Basic freedoms and entitlements everyone receives regardless of background.

2. Access → Equal opportunity to resources, opportunities, and decisions affecting one's life.

3. Participation → The ability to engage in the community and have a represented voice.

4. Equity → Tailored support for disadvantaged groups to help them achieve equal health and wellbeing (HWB).

When a question asks you to determine the effectiveness of a program/aid, what should you include?

A statement whether the program was effective, and utilsing the word ‘effective’ throughout.

Red dust healing facts (social justice)

• Indigenous-led program addressing trauma, identity, and personal hurt ("targeting the heart, not the head").

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• Promotes equity by providing culturally safe support for disadvantaged groups (e.g., Indigenous communities, justice systems) to improve health and wellbeing (HWB).

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• Enhances access to healing resources and support networks for individuals dealing with grief, loss, and intergenerational trauma.

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• Fosters participation by helping individuals take accountability and actively engage in their community and cultural identity.

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• Upholds human rights by ensuring equal access to culturally appropriate health services and social support regardless of background.

For the Australian Dietary Guidelines (ADGs), who developed it, why were they developed, and who can use them?

Who developed it: National health and medical research council (NHMRC)

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Why they were developed: Address the increase in diet related conditions, and to provide dietary advice

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Who can use these guidelines: Aimed at the general population, but not those with serious conditions who require specific dietary advice

Strengths of the ADGs (evaluate questions) (4)

1. Free to download (removes cost barriers)

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2. Tailored advice for different individual needs

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3. Available in accessible formats

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4. Specifies exact serve amounts and portion sizes

Limitations of the ADGs (evaluate questions) (3)

1. Written format can be difficult for individuals with low literacy levels

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2. Only available in English (language barrier for non-English speakers)

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3. Based on the "average" person, so they may not suit unique individual needs

Define the 5 ADGs (word for word)

ADG 1: To achieve and maintain a healthy weight, be physically active, and choose amounts of nutrtious food and drinks that meet your energy needs.

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ADG 2: Enjoy a wide variety of foods from the following five groups every day and drink plenty of water

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ADG 3: Limit intake of foods containing saturated fat, added salt, added sugars and alcohol

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ADG 4: Encourage, support and promote breastfeeding

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ADG 5: Care for your food; prepare and store it safely

What is the Australian guide to healthy eating? (define)

The AGHE is a visual food selection tool linked to ADGs 2 and 3, where each wedge represents a food group, alongside recommendations for adequate water, healthier fats, and limited discretionary foods.

What is the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island guide to healthy eating? (define)

The ATSIGHE, similar to the AGHE, is a visual food selection tool where each wedge represents a food group, along with recommendations for adequate water, healthier fats, and limited discretionary foods. With a main difference of including traditional foods.

Strengths of the AGHE (4)

1. Translated into 10+ languages

2. Suitable for all ages

3. Visual representation of ADGs 2 and 3

4. Includes diverse cultural foods

Limitations of the AGHE (3)

1. Proportions are only shown, no info on serving sizes or numbers

2. No provisions for composite foods

3. No specifc advice for people with dietary conditons ot needs

Similarities between AGHE and ATSIGHE

1. Both visually represent the five food groups

2. Both recommend identical food group proportions

3. Both promote drinking water

Differences between AGHE and ATSIGHE

1. ATSIGHE includes cultural foods (e.g., kangaroo, damper), unlike the AGHE

2. ATSIGHE uses earthy tones, whereas the AGHE uses blue and green

Similarities between AGHE and ADGs (2)

1. Both promote healthy eating and refer to the five food groups

2. Both recommend drinking plenty of water and limiting discretionary foods

Differences between AGHE and ADGs (3)

1. AGHE shows visual proportions; ADGs specify serving sizes and individual needs.

2. AGHE excludes composite foods; ADGs include them.

3. AGHE is a simple consumer visual; ADGs provide professional detail, physical activity, and food safety info.

Define medicare (word for word)

Medicare is Australia’s universal health insurance scheme. It gives all Australian zitiznes, permanent residents and people from countries with reciprocal agreements access to healthcare that is free or subsidised by the government.

Define schedule fee

The schedule fee is the amount of money that the government contributes for a particular medical service or procedure.

Define bulk billing

Bulk billing refers to when the doctor charges only the schedule fee.

Define patient co-payments

Patient co-payments refer to the payment made by the consumer for health services in addition to the amount paid by the government.

Define medicare safety net

The medicare safety net provides extra financial assistance once out-of-pocket medical costs reach a specific threshold in a calendar year, making further Medicare services cheaper.

What are the 3 ways medicare is funded, and define each

1. Medicare levy: A standard 2% tax on most taxpayers' income (with low-income exemptions).

2. Medicare levy surcharge: An extra 1-1.5% tax for high-income earners without private health insurance (to reduce public system demand).

3. General taxation revenue: Government funds collected from broader taxes.

What are examples of services covered by medicare?

• Consultations: Doctor and specialist visits

• Tests: Pathology (blood tests) and diagnostic imaging (X-rays, scans)

• Hospital Care: Free or subsidized treatment as a public patient in a public hospital

What are examples of services not covered by medicare?

• Dental: Most general dental exams (except for concession holders)

• Care & Transport: Home nursing treatment and ambulance services

• Therapies: Alternative medicines and most allied health (e.g., physiotherapists)

• Private Hospitals: Accommodation and theatre fees (though 75% of treatment costs are covered)

What are the advantages of medicare? (5)

1. Choice of doctor for out-of-hospital care

2. Available to all Australian citizens

3. Reciprocal healthcare agreements overseas

4. Covers essential tests, exams, and doctor fees

5. Safety net provides extra help for high out-of-pocket costs

What are the disadvantages of medicare? (4)

1. No doctor choice for in-hospital public treatment

2. Waiting lists for elective treatments

3. Excludes alternative therapies

4. Does not always cover full doctor fees (out-of-pocket costs)

Define the pharmaceutical benefits scheme

The PBS is the federal Government’s subsidy scheme for essential medicines, where the patient makes a general copayment (25$) and the Government pays the remaining costs, but not all medicines are covered.

Define the PBS safety net

The PBS safety net refers to how once an individual has spent a certain amount in a calendar year on PBS listed medcine, patient only pats a concessional copayment (7.70$).

Define the National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS)

The NDIS is a national insurance scheme that promotes services and support for people with permanent, significant disabilities and their families and carers. It works to assist these people to live an ordinary life.

Who is eligible for the NDIS?

• Age: Must be under 65 years old when first applying

• Residency: Must live in Australia and be an Australian citizen, permanent visa holder, or protected special category visa holder

• Disability: Must meet the permanent and significant disability requirements

What are the NDIS disability requirements? (3)

1. Must have a permanent or lifelong impairment

2. The impairment significantly impacts daily functioning

3. Requires lifelong support or specialised equipment

What can the NDIS assist with? (2)

1. Accessing mainstream services and supports

2. Receving reasonal and necessary funded supports and technology

Define private health insurance (PHI)

PHI is a type of insurance where members pay a premium (or fee) in return for payment towards health-related costs not covered by medicare.

What are the 4 PHI incentives and define them

1. Lifetime Health Cover: Extra 2% loading on premiums for every year joined after age 30.

2. PHI Rebate: Income determined government refund on PHI premiums.

3. Medicare Levy Surcharge: Extra 1-1.5% tax for high-income earners without PHI.

4. Age-Based Discount: Up to 10% discount on hospital cover for people aged 18–29.

What are advantages of PHI (2)

1. Shorter waiting times for elective surgery

2. Access to extra services like dental and physio, depending on cover

What are disadvantages of PHI (2)

1. Expensive ongoing premium costs

2. Policies may be confusing

What are the 4 following key areas that guide the implementation of Australia’s health system (SAFE)

• Sustainability: Ensures long-term care capacity.

• Access: Provides affordable, geographic, and cultural availability.

• Funding: Allocates money for hospitals, training, wages, and programs.

• Equity: Gives extra support to disadvantaged groups.

How does medicare promote sustainability, access, funding and equity?

• Sustainability: Subsidizes only essential services and uses the Medicare levy to preserve long-term funds.

• Access: Bulk-billing, rebates, and telehealth provide economic and geographic reach.

• Funding: Subsidizes part or all of doctor and specialist fees, hospital treatments, and diagnostic tests.

• Equity: Safety nets and Mental Health Treatment Plans give extra support to those with high medical needs.

How does PHI promote sustainability, access, funding and equity?

• Sustainability: Incentives (like lifetime health cover and age-based discounts) shift users to private care, reducing public strain.

• Access: Rebates make private coverage more affordable, opening access to otherwise costly services.

• Funding: Finances private hospital care (covering ~40% of treatments) and is supported by the federal government via the PHI rebate.

• Equity: Income-tested rebates give greater financial help to lower-income earners.

How does PBS promote sustainability, access, funding and equity?

• Sustainability: Continuous reviews of listed medicines and TGA safety/effectiveness checks keep the scheme sustainable.

• Access: Available to all citizens and permanent residents, with concessional pricing for low-income earners.

• Funding: Subsidizes the cost of essential, life-saving modern medicines.

• Equity: The PBS safety net and reduced co-payments protect low-income earners and Indigenous Australians from high medication costs.

How does NDIS promote sustainability, access, funding and equity?

• Sustainability: Individualized plans ensure resources go only to necessary funds, maximizing efficiency.

• Access: Nationally rolled-out support for those with permanent, significant disabilities to access transport, care, and daily resources.

• Funding: Funds individualized support, equipment (e.g., bed rails), and carers for eligible individuals.

• Equity: Allocates the most assistance to those with the highest needs via tailored plans without extra funding burdens on the user.