Germany: Development of Dictatorship, 1918-45

proportional representation

proportional representation

An election system in which each party running receives the proportion of seats corresponding to its proportion of the vote

problem in Weimar republic with proportional representation

too many parties splitting the vote, coalition governments became necessary with no clear majority - but they often disagreed and collapsed quickly, very little gets done and voters grow tired of democracy

Why the Weimar Republic was unpopular

some refused to accept how close Germany was to losing the war, founders of Weimar Republic seen as traitors, many senior figures did not support democracy and democratic governments met with opposition

Fundamental Laws of Weimar Republic

personal freedom (no one can be arrested unless they have broken the law), freedom of expression (all Germans can express their own opinion in speech, writing or picture), the freedom to hold peaceful meetings and form unions and societies

article 48

Allowed the President, under certain circumstances, to take emergency measures without the consent of the Reichstag

Weimar president

elected every 7 years, appoints chancellor, judges and is supreme commander of armed forces (Reichswehr)

Weimar chancellor

head of government

the Reichstag

German Parliament

the Spartacist Uprising

5 Jan 1919, revolt in Berlin - occupied headquarters of government newspaper and telephone offices and tried to bring about a general strike

leaders of the Spartacist Uprising

Rosa Luxemburg, Karl Liebknecht

reason for Spartacist Uprising

to bring about a Communist revolution, similar to the Russian Revolution

consequences of Spartacist Uprising

volunteer soldiers called the Freikorps who hated Communism ended the revolt and killed Luxemburg and Liebknecht - but these killings went against Fundamental Law that states everyone gets a free trial (damaged Weimar Republic's reputation) and meant Weimar government now relied more on very right-wing Freikorps

the Kapp Putsch

March 1920, ex-soldiers dissatisfied by decision to decrease army in Treaty of Versailles, felt unable to adjust to civilian life and formed the Freikorps

leader of the Kapp Putsch

Dr Wolfgang Kapp

consequences of the Kapp Putsch

Ebert appealed to the people for support - encouraged people to strike and moved people out of the city, strikes disrupted essential supplies and Kapp realised he did not have the necessary support and disbanded the Freikorps - showed Weimar government was weak, but people preferred it over Kapp

The Beer Hall Putsch/Munich Putsch

November 1923 - attempt to overthrow Weimar government and establish a right-wing, nationalistic one

leader of The Beer Hall Putsch

Adolf Hitler

consequences of Beer Hall Putsch

16 Nazis dead, Hitler arrested and charged with treason, Nazi party banned, but Hitler had a lenient sentence and used trial to generate publicity

dolschtoss

'stabbed in the back' (after Treaty of Versailles)

French invasion of the Ruhr

Jan 1923 - French invaded the Ruhr because they wanted access to coal, iron and steel there after Germany missed a reparations payment

how Germany responded to the French invasion of the Ruhr

passive resistance was demonstrated by German workers so invaders did not have access to supplies - German government encouraged workers to do this by giving them strike pay

cause of the 1923 hyperinflation crisis

passive resistance meant workers were striking and fewer goods were being produced, weakening the economy further - the government had to print more money to pay the striking workers which led to hyperinflation

hyperinflation winners

borrowers could pay back their loans easily with worthless money, farmers' goods stayed in demand and they recieved more money for their goods while prices spiralled

Stresemann Era

1924-1929 - Weimar Republic doing well and improving Germany's reputation and power

hyperinflation losers

people on fixed incomes, people with savings and those who had lent money, Germany had no room to

negotiate in trading as they were desperate for money

how new currencies helped Germany

Rentenmark introduced to replace worthless German mark, Rentenmark replaced in 1924 by Reichsmark, a permanent currency that restored faith in Germany's economy and allowed it to grow

how Stresemann's negotiations helped Germany

tried to take financial load off Germany, believed economy couldn't recover until reparations solved, thought that Germany should accept terms of treaty to improve relations

Dawes Plan 1924

USA loaned 800 million gold marks, reparations lowered to 1000 million marks for first 5 years, Allies agreed to review payment over time, French withdrew from Ruhr

Young Plan 1929

NEVER CAME INTO EFFECT (Wall Street Crash) - Germany only had to pay a third of the annual sum each year, total reparations reduced, French agreed to leave Rhineland earlier

Locarno Pact 1925

Germany agreed to accept new western borders (agreed Alsace-Lorraine would be French), agreed Germany's eastern borders could be settled by 'peaceful means' (Germany, Poland and Czechoslovakia agreed to settle disputes in League of Nations) - shows Germany was being treated as an equal power in Europe

League of Nations 1926

Stresemann persuaded the League to accept Germany, improved Germany's reputation, allowed it more negotiating room (but some Germans saw the League as a symbol of the Treaty Of Versailles and were upset)

Kellogg-Briand Pact 1928

Aug 1928 - 62 countries signed this, encouraging countries not to use violence in disagreements - showed improvement in Germany's relations and that Weimar Republic was a respected state

problems with the Stresemann Era

Stresemann's agreements meant he was far too reliant on the USA - the Wall Street Crash meant Germany fell into crisis

Hitler in the German Workers Party

worked in the Army from 1919 to keep an eye on the German Workers Party - came to realise he agreed with their views, was put in charge of propaganda - increased membership and revised aims (had them published in 25 Point Programme), became party's leading public speaker and then leader

hierarchy of Nazi Party

Hitler > The SS > Leadership Corps > The SA > Party Membership > Hitler Youth

gauleiter

people who held office in the Nazi party

Mein Kampf

written by Hitler - wrote about measures against Jewish people, need for lebensraum, dominance of Aryan race

Lebensraum

living space for Gemans

effect of the Wall Street Crash on Germany

800 million marks loaned to Germany in Dawes Plan were recalled (Hitler hated this plan so could use this to Nazis' advantage) - companies went bust and unemployment rate rose, banks became more cautious and loan less money, people lost faith in democracy, Young Plan never came into effect

Weimar government unpopular economic policies

government scared to print more money after hyperinflation crisis, so raised taxes, cut wages and reduced unemployment benefit

why the middle class turned to the Nazis

Great Depression meant middle class lost companies, pensions and savings - did not want to lose more so were scared of Communism, which Nazis could protect from, Nazis represented a return to traditional values

why young people and women turned to the Nazis

young people attracted by Hitler's goals, charisma and speeches, women originally not fond of Nazi policies limiting them to domesticity, but propaganda changed their minds, saying it was the best for their countries and families

why the working class turned to the Nazis

promised 'Work and Bread', attracted by traditional values, propaganda gave impression workers already supported them

why big businesses turned to the Nazis

Nazis were protection from Communism, who could take away their businesses - National Party's (who businesses usually voted for) seats halved from 1929-32

why farmers turned to the Nazis

original Nazi policy of confiscating all private land was changed in 1923 - only confiscated if owned by Jewish people - Nazis protected from Communism, so farmers didn't lose their land

why the Nazis only had 12 seats in the Reichstag by 1928

Germany doing well under Stresemann era - people not desperate so no need to vote for extremist parties

why the Nazis gained the most seats between Sep 1930-July 1932

Germany feeling effects of Great Depression and becoming more desperate, so turning to more extreme parties like the Nazis (Nazis had done a good job of reorganising their party so were ready to jump at this opportunity)

how Hitler gained power

von Papen offered Hitler as a candidate for Chancellor, persuading Hindenburg by saying Hitler could be easily controlled if he was Vice-Chancellor - however they underestimated Hitler while being too concerned over reaching the top

When Hitler was appointed Chancellor

30 January 1933

Reichstag Fire

27 January 1933 - Communist boy (Marinus van der Lubbe) found with matches and lighters and charged with setting Reichstag alight, 4000 Communist leaders arrested on night of fire

consequences of Reichstag fire

Hitler persuaded Hindenburg to sign Emergency Decree (Article 48), Hitler ruled instead of Hindenburg as he was old and ailing - meant police didn't need a warrant to search homes, imprisoned people without trial, Goering took over state radio

theories about who started the Reichstag Fire

Van der Lubbe acted alone or part of a Communist plot, the Nazis set it themselves to incriminate Communists

Enabling Act

March 1933 - workers no longer allowed to join trade unions, opposition politicians arrested and imprisoned, SA given powers to search and ransack homes of suspected opponents, Hitler could make laws with foreign powers without approval of Reichstag, reorganised state parliaments so Nazis held a majority in each one, banned Communist party from Reichstag

Night of the Long Knives

30th June 1934 - SS arrested over 200 SA officers, around 90 died, Hitler took revenge on old enemies to remove rivals for Nazi leadership

reasons for Night of the Long Knives

SA behaviour embarrassing to Hitler, head of SA had opposing views to Hitler, SA wanted to take place of army but Hitler wanted to increase size of army

death of Hindenburg

2nd August 1934 - Hitler combined offices of Chancellor and President, army loyalty oath made to Hitler directly, Hitler held a vote to get public to agree to new changes and 90% agreed following large amount of propaganda

ways the Nazis controlled people

incentives, propaganda, fear

Nazi control through fear

use of Gestapo, concentration camps, book burning, control of courts, informers, censorship

Gestapo

secret police - German citizens could report anyone engaging in anti-Nazi behaviour, intercepted mail and phone calls

SS

terrorised Germans into obedience, could search houses or confiscate things

concentration camps

questioning, torture, 're-education', people sent there if they showed opposition to Nazi rule (over 200,000)

Nazi control over courts

judges took an oath of loyalty to Hitler, courts could arrest Nazi opponents on a technicality, no juries, no fair trials, no right of appeal, number of crimes punishable by death rose from 3 in 1933 to 46 in 1946

informers

each block in a town had a Block Warden - they had to write reports on 'political reliability' of residents and report on anti-Nazi behaviour

censorship

newspapers and radios controlled, German radios could not pick up foreign broadcasts, unsuitable artwork not shown, books from universities and libraries were banned, music influenced by American culture banned

Nazi control through propaganda

press and radio controlled, culture, art, films controlled, use of rallies, marches, pageantry, posters

culture and art censorship

art divided into approved art and not approved art

approved art

Aryan figures, positive views of work, strong figures

not approved art

women 'immodestly dressed', same-sex relationships

propaganda posters

posters put up to show Hitler's power, support and influence (eg: 'Ein Volk, Ein Reich, Ein Fuhrer - 'One people, one Empire, one Fuhrer')

examples of propaganda films

The Eternal Jew (antisemitic film spreading Nazi message), The Triumph of the Will (film made at Nuremberg rally showing Hitler's great support)

control over radio

people's reciever 301 - cheap so people would buy it, broadcasts of Nazi messages played for factory workers

rallies, marches, pageantry

showed Hitler's widespread support (eg: Nuremberg Rally 1934 - everyone came to see Hitler from around the area)

Hitler Youth

Organizations set up under Hitler to train and educate German young people in Nazi beliefs and training boys with military drills

sections of Hitler Youth

Young German Folk (boys 10-14), German Young Girls (girls 10-14), Hitler Youth (boys 14-18), League of German Maidens (girls 14-18)

features of Hitler Youth to attract children

camps, sports equipment, uniform, feeling important

1936 Hitler Youth Law

every child had to belong to a Nazi youth organisation

German in Nazi Schools

German language and literature work was chosen to show examples of German military success, sacrifice and long traditions of the German people

Maths in Nazi schools

Nazi values normalised in maths problems (eg: military, antisemitism)

history in Nazi schools

Jewish people blamed for Germany's problems, learnt about rise of Nazis, military accounts for reading material

biology in Nazi schools

teaching Aryan supremacy and how to recognise Jewish people

geography in Nazi schools

learnt about regions Germans felt they were entitled to (given in the Treaty of Versailles) to train boys for invasions, creation of German empire

PE in Nazi schools

15% of a school's weekly timetable, boxing became compulsory, training boys for military service

girls' lessons in Nazi schools

learnt about childbearing and finding a good husband (Nazis wanted to repopulate Germany)

increase in number of women working from 1933-1939

50% higher

honour cross

women awarded this based on number of children (gold - 8, silver - 6, bronze - 4)

women's clothing in Nazi Germany

makeup discouraged, home-produced clothes, flat heels

how Nazis encouraged women to have children

state gave healthy couples loans to have children if women gave up work, marriage loans could only be kept if the couple went on to have children

why Christianity was a threat to Hitler

Bible messages did not fit with Hitler's views, God seen as a rival

Hitler's approach to the Church

abolishing them would make Hitler unpopular, so he tried to control them

How Hitler controlled the Church

membership of Catholic League was illegal, Gestapo, SS agents spied on Church organisations, Catholic priests who spoke out against the Nazis arrested/held in concentration camps, state funding for churches and monasteries rescinded

1933 Concordat

agreement that the Church and the Nazis would not get involved in each other's affairs

Confessional Church

Established by Martin Niemoller and Dietrich Bonhoeffer in 1934 as a protest against the Nazi takeover of the Church

Women's roles in Nazi Germany

wives, mothers (encouraged not to do anything that could decrease their fertility or seem 'unladylike')

how successful Hitler was in controlling the Churches

more successful in controlling the Protestant Church than Catholic Church (no set leader for Protestantism, so easier to control) - Catholic Church continued to function

Martin Niemoller

Protestant - one of the founders of the Confessional Church - opposed Nazi takeover of churches - arrested and sent to a concentration camp

Paul Schneider

Protestant who protested about Nazi criticism of the Church, excommunicated parishioners who were Nazis and was put in a concentration camp and murdered

Cardinal Galen

Catholic - spoke against Nazi euthanasia, tactics and values, revealed persecution of mentally ill

Josef Fath

Catholic priest, resisted Nazi influence on the young, taught opposing view points in his village, supported Swing Youth - escaped major punishment

Germany 1933 unemployment figure

over 6 million