Lifespan Human Development: Key Theories, Genetics, and Prenatal Care

Lifespan Human Development

The ways in which people grow, change, and stay the same throughout their lives, from conception to death.

Nature/Nurture

Theoretical controversy over whether development is the result of the child's genetics endowment or environmental influences.

Sociocultural Influence

The impact of social and cultural factors on development.

Continuity/Discontinuity

The debate over whether development is a gradual, continuous process or a series of distinct stages.

Interaction among domains

The interplay between different areas of development, such as cognitive, emotional, and social.

Risk/Resilience

The factors that contribute to vulnerability or strength in the face of challenges.

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

A psychodynamic perspective suggesting that developmental change happens throughout our lives and we go through eight stages, each representing a conflict that must be resolved.

Psychoanalytic Theories

Theories proposed by Freud suggesting that unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior.

Ego

The part of the personality that mediates between the desires of the ID and the constraints of the Superego.

ID

The part of the personality that contains our primal instincts and desires.

Superego

The part of the personality that represents moral conscience and attempts to control the ID's impulses.

Classical Conditioning

A form of learning in which a person or animal comes to associate environmental stimuli with physiological responses.

Unconditioned

Referring to responses that are unlearned.

Conditioned

Referring to responses that are learned.

Operant Conditioning

A learning process where behavior becomes more or less probable depending on the consequences.

Social Learning Theory

The theory that people learn through observing and imitating models.

Cognitive-developmental Theory

A theoretical orientation emphasizing the active construction of psychological structures to interpret experiences, most often associated with Piaget.

Information Processing

A perspective that views thinking as…, likening the mind to a computer.

Sociocultural Systems Theory

A theory that examines how culture is transmitted from one generation to the next through social interaction.

Bioecological Systems Theory

Bronfenbrenner's theory that development results from ongoing interactions among biological, cognitive, and psychological changes within the person and their changing context.

Scientific Method

A process of posing and answering questions by making careful and systematic observations and gathering information.

Methods of Data Collection

Includes questionnaires, interviews, and observational measures for gathering data.

Correlational Research

allows examination of relations among measured characteristics, behaviors, and events.

Experimental Research

Steps to conduct an experiment:

1. Design your experiment

2. Observe a behavior and look for a pattern

3. Form a hypothesis

4. Get approval from the IRB to carry it out

5. Directly vary a condition you think will affect behavior

Operational Definition

Specification of variables in terms of measurable properties.

Independent Variable

The factor proposed to change the behavior under study.

Dependent Variable

The behavior under study that is being measured.

Extraneous Variables

Variables that need to be controlled for in an experiment.

Experimental Group

The participants who are exposed to the independent variable under investigation.

Control Group

The group of participants who are NOT exposed to the independent variable.

Random Assignment

Allows each participant to have an equal chance of being assigned to the experimental or control group.

Cross-sectional Study

Comparing different groups of people at different ages, at one time.

Longitudinal Study

Research in which the same participants are repeatedly tested over a period of time, usually years.

Sequential Study

Combines the best features of cross-sectional and longitudinal research by assessing multiple cohorts over time.

Ethics in Research

Participants must know details; research with children requires parental consent.

Gene

Basic units of heredity held within the chromosomes, composed of stretches of DNA.

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid; a complex molecule shaped like a twisted ladder.

Chromosome

Threadlike structure of DNA, located in the nucleus of cells, which forms a collection of genes.

Gamete

Sperm cell in males, egg cell in females, normally containing only 23 chromosomes.

Meiosis

Process of cell division that forms the gametes.

Autosomes

The first 22 pairs of chromosomes.

Identical (Monozygotic) Twins

Come from one egg, fertilized by one sperm, which forms two separate cell masses.

Fraternal (Dizygotic) Twins

Come from two separate eggs fertilized by two separate sperm.

Genotype

Total genetic endowment inherited by an individual.

Phenotype

Observable characteristics and traits of an individual.

Dominant allele

Genes that are always expressed regardless of the gene they are paired with.

Recessive allele

Allele whose characteristics will only be expressed if paired with another recessive gene.

Heterozygous

Alleles in a pair are different.

Homozygous

Alleles in a pair are alike.

Incomplete dominance

Genetic inheritance pattern in which both genes influence the characteristic.

Genomic imprinting

Refers to the instance in which the expression of a gene is determined by whether it is inherited from the mother or the father.

Prader Willi Syndrome

Abnormality on chromosome 15 from father results in this syndrome.

Angelman Syndrome

Abnormality on chromosome 15 from mother results in this syndrome.

Sex Linked Inheritance

Sex linked hereditary disorders are controlled by a gene carried on the sex determining chromosome.

Color blindness

An example of a sex linked hereditary disorder.

Hemophilia

An example of a sex linked hereditary disorder. 2

Down Syndrome

Occurs when three chromosomes, rather than two, appear in place of the 21st pair of chromosomes.

Genetic Counseling

Medical specialty that helps prospective parents determine the risk that their children will inherit genetic defects and chromosomal abnormalities.

Amniocentesis

Prenatal diagnostic procedure in which a small sample of the amniotic fluid is extracted from the mother's uterus.

Chorionic Villi Sampling (CVS)

Requires studying a small amount of tissue from the chorion, part of the membrane surrounding the fetus.

Ultra Sound

Method of using sound wave reflections to obtain a representation of the developing fetus.

usually done twice, one being at 20 weeks

Nuchal Fold Test

This test uses a combination of ultrasound and maternal blood screening to check for increased risk of some abnormalities.

Done between 11 - 14 weeks

Noninvasive prenatal testing (NIPT)

Examines cell-free fetal DNA which circulates in maternal blood in small amounts and can be detected and studied by sampling the mothers blood.

No risk to fetus

Behavior Genetics

Field of study that examines how genes and experience combine to influence the diversity of human traits, behaviors, and abilities. ie, height has a strong genetic component but it’s modified by environment.

Conception

The union of the ovum and the sperm marks the beginning of prenatal development.

Germinal period

Period of the zygote; First 2 weeks after conception.

Blastocyst

A fluid-filled sphere with cells forming a protective circle around an inner cluster of cells from which the embryo will develop.

Embryonic Period

Goes from 3rd to 8th week after conception.

The name of the mass of cells
changes from zygote to embryo
after attachment

Endoderm

Lower layer of the embryo; Will become digestive system, liver, lungs, pancreas, respiratory system.

Mesoderm

Middle layer of the embryo; Becomes muscles, skeleton, circulatory system, internal organs.

Ectoderm

Upper layer of the embryo; will become skin, hair, nails, teeth, sensory organs, and nervous system.

Placenta

The principal organ of exchange between the mother and developing organism.

Umbilical Cord

Conduit of blood vessels through which oxygen, nutrients, and waste products are transported between placenta and embryo.

Amniotic sac

Fluid-filled, transparent protective membrane surrounding the fetus.

Fetal Period

Period of prenatal development marked by the appearance of bone; About the 9th week after conception to birth. around or before the 20th week the mother can feel the fetus move

Vernix Caseosa

Greasy material covering the skin protecting fetus from abrasion, chapping, and hardening from exposure to amniotic fluid.

Meconium

Just a fancy term describing the first baby poop. Doctors look for signs of meconium in amniotic fluid during labor. It can be dangerous if aspirated.

Third Trimester

27-40 weeks. Age of viability. Age at which advanced medical care permits a preterm newborn to survive outside the womb, begins about 22 weeks after conception. Adding body fat. Rudimentary breathing movements present. Responds to sounds. Periods of sleep and wakefulness. May assume birth position.

Teratogen

An agent that causes damage to prenatal development, producing a birth defect.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

Children born to mothers who drink are at risk

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders

Refers to the continuum of effects of exposure to alcohol, which vary with the timing and amount of exposure. The extreme end is fetal alcohol syndrome.

Smoking and Vaping

Can adversely affect prenatal development, with, and postnatal development.'

Fetal and neonate deaths are higher

Congenital

Defect you are born with.

Environmental Hazards

Factors like heat, radiation, and pathogens that can cause serious problems during pregnancy.

Maternal Diet

Prenatal vitamins and a healthy diet are important.

Emotional Stress

stimulates the production of adrenaline which causes capillaries to constrict and diverts blood flow.

Labor

Progresses in 3 stages. For women having their first baby, this usually lasts between 12 - 24 hours with an average of 14.

First Stage of Labor

Uterine contractions are usually 15 - 20 minutes apart and last up to 1 minute. They cause the cervix to stretch and open.

Second Stage of Labor

Lasts about 90 minutes. Cervix opens and baby begins to move through the cervix and birth canal.

Episiotomy

Cut to make delivery easier.

Third Stage of Labor

Afterbirth. The placenta, umbilical cord, and other membranes are detached and expelled.

Cesarean Birth

Surgical procedure that removes the fetus from the uterus through the abdomen.

Apgar Assessment

Score of 4 or less > Infant needs medical help.

Thalidomide

Prescribed for morning sickness in the 1960s. Results in limb abnormalities.

Heroin

Infants are born addicted and show signs of withdrawal.

Cocaine

Reduces birth weight and length. Increased frequencies of congenital abnormalities.

Aspirin

Can lead to blood disorders in the fetus and a life threatening condition for the mother.

Pathogens

Type of illness and point it occurs in pregnancy can be cause for serious problems.

Lanugo

First hairs on a baby

Smoking is linked to:

Placental abruption

Malformation of organs

SIDS increases (sudden infant death syndrome)