AP HuG Exam Review - Unit 6

city

city

a relatively large, densely populated settlement with a much larger population than rural towns and villages; these serve as important commercial, governmental, and cultural hubs for their surrounding regions

agricultural surplus

crop yields that are sufficient to feed more people than the people than the farmer and his/her family

socioeconomic stratification

the structuring of society into distinct socioeconomic classes, including leadership (for instance, a government or ruling class) that exercise control over goods and people

first urban revolution

agricultural and socioeconomic innovations that led to the rise of early cities

• Agri surplus, social stratification, job specialization

urban hearth areas

regions in which the world's first cities evolved; associated with defensible sites and river valleys around agri hearths

• Tigris/Euphrates Rivers (Fertile Cerscent)

• Indus River

site

Characteristics at the immediate absolute location. Ex:

• Harbors, rivers, climate, labor force, human structures

situation

the relative location of a place in reference to its surrounding features, or its regional position with reference to other places

capitalism

an economic and political system in which a country's trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than owned and run by the state.

communism

an economic and political system in which all property is publicly owned and managed (usually by the state/government)

• Anti-urbanization bc creates class privilege

streetcar suburb

A settlement outside a city with streetcar lines; the streetcars take residents into and out of the city easily

second urban revolution

The industrial innovations in mining and manufacturing that led to increased urban growth

• Industrial rev → ppl moving to cities for job opportunities

redevelopment

a set of activities intended to revitalize an area that has fallen on hard times

metropolis

a very large and densely populated city, particularly the capital or major city of a country or region

urban area

any self-governing place in the United States that contains at least 2500 people

urbanized area

In the United States, an urban area with at least 50,000 inhabitants.

urban cluster

In the United States, an urban area with between 2,500 and 50,000 inhabitants.

suburb

a populated area on the outskirts of a city

urbanization rate

The percentage of a nation's population living in towns and cities

Megalopolis

is a group of metropolitan areas which are perceived as a continuous urban area through common systems of transport, economy, resources, ecology, and so on; continuously developed string of cities

• Ex: Bos-Wash Corridor - String of cities from Boston through New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore to Washington DC

suburbanization

the movement of people from urban core areas to the surrounding outskirts of a city

Causes of suburbanization after WWII:

• Economic expansion: Grater purchasing power for families, car-centered lifestyle, highways built for commutes

• Racial Tension - “White Flight” - AA migrated to cities for jobs/edu so whites left, go lacked investment in cities, industries and jobs left cities (decentralized) and so did residents

Continued govt investment in suburban growth and lack of investment in inner cities = urban decline and suburban growth. Industries and jobs left the cities, and residents followed

sprawl + reasons

The tendency of cities to grow outward in an unchecked manner. Reasons:

• Growth of suburbs, cheaper land (Bid-Rent theory), lower density single-family housing, growth of car culture

• As suburbs grew, businesses began to decentralize their operations

automobile cities

cities whose size and shape are dictated by and almost require individual automobile ownership

decentralize

In an urban context, to move business operations from core city areas into outlying areas such as suburbs

edge city + characteristics

a concentration of business, shopping, and entertainment that developed in the suburbs, outside of a city's traditional downtown or CBD; grew at major highway interchanges

• Close to transportation routes

• Nodes of economic activity in periphery of city

• Mini downtowns with malls, restaurants, office complexes

• Fewer residents than city

  • Populated during day (workers), leave at night to go home

boomburb (also called boomburg) + characteristics

rapidly growing community with more than 100,000 residents that is NOT a core city in a metropolitan areas; a large suburb with its own government

• Rapidly growing

• No dense urban center

• Have their own downtown area

• Found in metropolitan areas

• Traffic congestion + Pollution

• Ex → Plano, Texas

infill development

the building of new retail, business, or residential spaces on vacant or underused parcels in already-developed areas

Types of infilling:

• Developing one or more new residences on an undeveloped site within a neighborhood

• Redeveloping an existing neighborhood

• Demolishing an existing home for a larger home

exurb + characteristics

a semi-rural district located beyond the suburbs that is often inhabited by well-to-do families

• Rise of exurbs bc its become more common to work home after COVID

• Remote working via tech

• Cultural preferences

• Expansive lots of land, single family homes

• Ppl move here bc they want privacy

• Limited service

• Caused by counter-urbanization/deurbanization

• Rise of automobiles and highway systems - ppl moving further but want the best of both worlds - country life and city amenities

world city

a city that is a control center of the global economy, in which major decisions are made about the world's commercial networks and financial markets (also called a global city)

• NYC, London, Tokyo

• Media hubs and financial centers, high-order services

• Where key decisions about products, manufacturing, banking, cultural trends, marketing, and information originate

• Decisions made by leaders of world cities impact EVERYONE

• Largest cities are not always world cities; not about pop size but economic influence

• Powerful transportation, communication, and businesses services

gated community

privately governed and highly secure residential area within the bounds of a city; often has a fence or a gate surrounding it

urban system

a set of interdependent cities or urban places connected by networks

urban hierarchy

a ranking of cities, with the largest and most powerful cities at the top of the hierarchy

rank-size rule + characteristics

the population of a settlement is inversely proportional to its rank in the urban hierarchy; the nth largest city will be 1/n the size of the largest city (rounding/estimates used)

• More common in MDC’s

  • MDC’s = better infra. allowing for small, medium, and large cities (urban hierarchy) to develop & share resources (N.America/W.Euro)

• Common in area with federal gov - sharing of powers

  • Sharing of power to local levels of gov allowing them to collect taxes and build up their infrastructure to develop medium cities

• Size of city determines type of services:

  • Large city = high-order services: expensive, supports large # of people, occasionally used- luxury car dealerships, major sports teams, research hospitals

  • Small city = low-order services: less expensive, for lower pop, frequently used- gas station, local grocery store

  • Has midsized cities in between

• More of a tendency than a rule

primate city + characteristics

a city that is much larger than any other city in the country and that dominates the country's economic, political, and cultural life

• Both LDC’s & MDC’s- usually former center of colonial power

  • London, Moscow, Paris-centralized power for easy control over colonies

• Unitary form of gov-strong central gov

• Offer a wider range of services than smaller cities

• Lack medium sized cities (unlike rank-size rule)

  • MDC’s like London-don’t need medium sized bc easy transp. to get there for services; Ex: Scotland= only a 2 hr flight

  • LDC’s like Mexico City-do NOT have mid-size cities and struggle to get services to those not in primate cities (lack transp.) → migrate to city for eco. opp. & greater services

central place theory

a model, developed by Walter Christaller, that attempts to understand why cities are located where they are

• Central place - Location where people go to receive goods/services

  • Market area: zone that contains people who will purchase goods or services; surrounds each central place; hexagonal hinterlands

• 4 factors considered:

  • Type of people most likely to use the services

  • Maximum distance consumers were wiling to travel

  • Minimum # of people needed to support the services

  • Accessibility of service

• Travel distances dictate the placement of settlements in the urban hierarchy and their surfaces

  • Low-order services (gas station, grocery store, regularly purchased household items) → Lower threshold and range

  • Medium-order services (restaurants, movie theaters, shopping malls)

  • High-order services (stock market exchanges, major sports teams [super bowl], research hospital, etc) → Higher threshold and range

• Large cities can not be too close to each other because they would infringe on each others hinterlands

central place

a settlement that makes certain types of products and services available to consumers

threshold

in central place theory, the number of people required to support businesses

range

in central place theory, the distance people will travel to acquire a good

Multiple-Nuclei Model

a model of a city's internal organization, developed by Chauncy Harris and Edward Ullman, showing residential districts organized around several nodes rather than one central business district

• Chancy Harris and Edward Ullman, 1940s (around car invention)

• Multiple nuclei instead of one CBD, decentralization and sprawl occurring due to cars/suburbanization, CBD less of a focal point

• Each node attracted + repelled certain types of activities

• Numerous zones of industry in various locations, including CBD, port, or outlying locations near an airport or other transp → attracted related industries and higher density housing

  • Ex: A university or business park - attracts nearby restaurants, theaters, might create a district of student housing or high-quality homes nearby

Galactic City (Peripheral) Model

a model of a city's internal organization in which the central business district remains central, but multiple shopping areas, office parks, and the industrial districts are scattered throughout the surrounding suburbs and linked metropolitan expressway systems (such as a beltway or highway)

• Chuancy Harris, 1950s (suburban growth skyrocketed as govt built highways easing transport to/from cities)

• Based on decentralized Detroit, Michigan

• CBD central, but multiple shopping areas, office parks, and industrial districts are scattered through the surrounding suburbs and linking by ring road or beltway-white rim

• Functional zones with nodes, once large enough they became edge cities - ALL around ring beltway transp system

• CBD do high rise buildings surrounded by sprawl and includes edge cities near highways

• Left behind declining inner city

  • Most employment opp found in edge cities

  • CBD no longer heart

• Poor near industrial district, middle-class around office parks and closer to suburbs

Griffin-Ford (Latin American City) Model

A model of the internal structure of cities in less developed countries; developed by Ernst Griffin and Larry Ford; cities were planned and designed using the Law of Indies, are built around a central plaza/market place, include a spine where the wealthy live in the interior of the city, and includes squatter settlements along the periphery of the city

• Larry Ford and Ernest Griffin

• 1980, most applicable to metropolitan areas that were once colonial-era Spanish cities

• Traditional elements of Latin American culture mixed with globalization

• Extreme difference between areas for privileged and poverty

• Zones:

  • CBD → 2 parts; high quality housing

    • Traditional market center - sells every day goods

    • Modern high-rise center - focuses on primary business, entertainment, employment

  • Commercial Spine - Connects CBD to mall; high quality housing, theaters, restaurants, parks along it and ends in theaters secondary center (mall)

  • Market on opposite side - has spine connecting to industrial park

  • Zone of maturity - Rings CBD/market w/middle-class and good housing

    • Has small gentrification sector: low-income displaced by high-income as area improves

  • Zone of Situation Accretion - Transition between older area of central city and poorest part of city; lower middle-class

  • Periferico - Poverty, lack of infra, shantytowns/squatter settlements: areas of poorly built housing

  • Disamenity zone - favelas and barrios: Neighborhoods marked by extreme poverty, homelessness, and lawlessness

    • Not connected to city services (electricity, water supply), physically unsafe

    • Structures poorly con structures, densely packed

• As distance from the center of Latin American cities increases, the quality of housing decreases

  • Public transportation, the urban water supply, and access to electricity all decrease farther away from the center, sometimes disappearing altogether

Sub-Saharan African City Model

a model of the internal structure of cities in less developed countries; developed by Harm De Blij; unique characteristics include three central business districts - colonial business district, original business district, and informal marketplace business district; there are no distinct residential zones for the wealthy/poor due to poor economics for the entire city, people are separated more by ethnicities/tribal connections, large squatter settlements on the periphery of the city

• Traditional CBD - Before euro colonization, small shops clustered along narrow winding streets, formal economy

• Colonial CBD - Straight avenues, large homes, parks, admin centers, informal economy - temp workers don’t follow regulations, periodic markets

• Zone of Mining and Manufacturing

• Residential Zone - Based on ethnicity, show multiethnic makeup of Africa

• Periphery of Cities - Densely populated squatter settlements lacking public services for electricity, water, and sewage, like LA favelas - crimes and drugs

• NO exclusive residential zone for the wealthy, unlike all the other models

McGee (Southeast Asian City) Model

a model of the internal structure of cities in less developed countries; developed by Terrance McGee; unique characteristics include no central business district, but a port zone instead; separate residential and commercial zones for foreigners, new industrial estates on the outskirts of the city due to increased industrialization and manufacturing in more recent times

• T.G. McGee

• Describes the land use of many large cities where the focus is often a former colonial port zone; export oriented zone

• Zones:

  • Focal point NOT a CBD, but the Old Colonial Port Zone

  • Alien Commercial Zone - Chinese immigrants, residence attached to place of business

  • Mixed Land Use - Many different economic businesses

  • Market Gardening Zone - Light agriculture supplies city

  • Squatter Areas + Suburbs - Middle-class

• Differences w LA model and NA models

  • NA → Squatters/poorer in the outer city whereas SEA model shows middle-class in outer city limits

  • LA → SEA model has market gardening zone

gentrification

the displacement of lower-income residents by higher-income residents as an area or neighborhood improves

zoning regulation/ordinance

laws that dictate how land can be used

1. Residential - Where people live

2. Commercial - Where people/businesses sell goods and services

3. Industrial - Where businesses make things

fiscal squeeze (problems+solutions)

occurs when city revenues cannot keep up with increasing demands for city services and expenditures on decaying urban infrastructure

Problems:

• Cities lost residential pop and commercial establishments to suburban areas → Abandoned housing, lack of jobs, vacant warehouses, neglected neighborhoods, and crumbling infrastructure

• Migration of middle/upper-class to suburbs → decrease in city’s tax base = less tax revenue

  • Plus, city occupied by elderly or poor → need welfare services and no income to be taxed

Solutions (ish)

• Cities tracking/developing businesses - sports franchises, business/conference centers, tourist attractions, and large businesses

  • However, requires expensive infra that leads to more FS (parking, sewage)

• City offers fiscal adv → reduction in taxes to business; again = less revenue and more fs

built environment

the human-made space in which people live, work, and engage in leisure activities on a daily basis

smart growth

policies that combat regional sprawl by addressing issues of population density and transportation

compact design

Development that grows up (in the form of taller buildings) rather than out (in the form of urban sprawl)

diverse housing options

policy that encourages building quality housing for people and families of all life stages and income levels in a range of prices within a neighborhood

New Urbanism

an approach to city planning that focuses on fostering European-style cities of dense settlements, attractive architecture, and housing of different types and prices within walking distance to shopping, restaurants, jobs, and public transportation

1. Walkability

2. Connectivity

3. Mixed use and diversity

4. Diverse housing operations

5. Quality architecture and urban design

6. Traditional neighborhood structure

7. Increased density

8. Smart transportation

9. Sustainability

10. Quality of life

greenbelt + characteristics

a zone of grassy, forested, or agricultural land separating urban areas

• Promote healthy lifestyle/enjoy recreation

• Promote ecological health

• Limit urban sprawl

• If used for agri, farmers benefit from being closer to city

  • City ppl also get access to fresh food

• Economic benefits → Agri jobs, tourism

• Started in London

zoning

the classification of land according to restrictions on its use and development

slow-growth city

A city that changes its zoning laws to decrease the rate at which the city spreads horizontally, with the goal of avoiding the negative effects of sprawl

anti-displacement tenant activists

Advocates for poor and working-class residents who are at risk of losing their affordable housing to new development

de facto segregation

racial segregation that is not supported by law but is still apparent

redlining

the practice of identifying high-risk neighborhoods on a city map and refusing to lend money to people who want to buy property in those neighborhoods

blockbusting

a practice in which realtors persuade white homeowners in a neighborhood to sell their homes by convincing them that the neighborhood is declining due to black families moving in

affordability

the maximum price that a buyer can afford to pay for a house or apartment

housing choice voucher program

a federal government program to assist very-low-income families, the elderly, and the disabled with affordable, decent, safe, and sanitary housing

violent crime

a category of crime that includes murder, rape, robbery, and aggravated assault

social controls

formal and informal institutions that help to maintain law and order in place

environmental injustice

occurs when certain groups carry a larger share of environmental risks and hazards than groups who have the power to influence decisions about the environment

• Leads to increased health problems, birth defects, cancer, shorter avg life expectany

environmental racism

occurs when areas inhabited by low-income people of color are targeted for environmental contamination

environmental justice

the movement to fix environmental discrimination

squatter settlement

An area of degraded, seemingly temporary, inadequate, and often illegal housing

land tenure

the right to own or hold property; it defines the ways in which rights to that property are managed

inclusionary zoning (IZ)

municipal and county planning ordinances that require a given share of new construction to be affordable for people with low to moderate incomes

exclusionary zoning

Zoning that attempts to keep low- to moderate-income people out of a neighborhood

NIMBYs

Abbreviation for "not in my backyard"; term for people who try to prevent the construction of affordable housing and other types of development in their neighborhood

urban renewal

large-scale, government-funded redevelopment of the built environment in downtown and older inner-city neighborhoods

• Started after WWII when ppl moved to suburbs and cities decayed

• Pros:

  • Newer infra, builds up inner city, more amenities for public

• Cons

  • Residents have NO say, displaces minorities and low income

fiscal zoning

the practice of using local land-use regulation to preserve and possibly enhance the local property tax base

ecological footprint

the total amount of natural resources used and their impact on the natural environment

urban canyons, flooding, heat island, vegetation, and footprint

Urban Canyon:

• Streets lined with tall buildings - channel and intensify wind, block sunlight from ground

Urban Flooding:

• Soils compacted and replaced with buildings/streets/parking lots - more runoff instead of absorption

Urban heat Island:

• a mass of warm air in cities, generated by urban building materials and human activities, that sits over a city

Urban Vegetation:

• Influences quality of groundwater, reduces wind speeds and temps, absorbs air pollution, etc

Urban footprint:

• Spatial extend of an urban areas impacts on the natural environment

urban footprint

The spatial extent of the impacts of urban areas on the natural environment.

urban risk divide

the idea that disasters and disaster risk become urban phenomena as the world's population becomes increasingly concentrated in large cities

brownfields

properties whose use or development may be complicated by the potential presence of hazardous substances or pollutants

brownfield remediation

The process of removing or sealing off contaminants so that a site may be used again without any health concerns

Farmland Protection Policy (FPPA)

U.S. law that grants municipalities oversight over federally funded development projects on farmland

scattered developments

Subdivisions or developments that do not border on existing settlements and that remove agricultural land from production

perceived density

the general impression of the estimated number of people present in a given area

Characteristics needed for urban settlements/cities

• The presence of an agricultural surplus (support larger pop. and had extra to spare)

• The rise of social stratification (classes) and a leadership class or urban elite (ruling class/gov. org a way to store/distribute food & controlled people living in the community)

• The beginning of job specialization (not everyone needed in agri. →specialized→making tools, weapons, art, as well as religious leaders)

Urbanization

Ongoing process of developing towns and cities

• Does not end once a city is formed

City-State

Consisted of an urban center (the city) and its surrounding territory and agricultural villages

• Own political system and functioned indep. from other C-S

• Village/Territory received services and protection from the urban center

• Often raided for wealth ╸ Defense= primary consideration -military leaders evolved into political rulers, or kings

• Ex: Classical Greece (Athens, Sparta), Venice and Italian city-states during the Renaissance; Monaco, Vatican City, Singapore

Metropolitan Area

Collection of adjacent (neighboring) cities economically connected with high and continuous population density; metro areas

Metropolitan Statistical Area

Consists of a city of at least 50,000 people; the country and adjacent counties have a high degree of social and economic connection with the urban core

Brochert’s Model of Urban Growth

Describes how urban growth is based on transportation technology. He divided urban history into four periods, called epochs

Epoch: Sail-Wagon

• 1790-1830

• Water ports became very important

• Poor road conditions made long-distance travel between cities difficult

Epoch: Iron Horse

• 1830-1870

• Stefan engines powered boats, promoted growth of river cities

• Regional rail networks connected cities

• Rail lines connected resources and industrial sites

Epoch: Steel Rail

• 1870-1920

• Transcontinental railways emerged, cities emerged along rail lines in the interior of continents

Epoch: Auto-Air-Amenity

• 1920-1970

• Cars allowed cities to spread out

• Airport hubs emerged, cities became far more interconnected

Megacities

Regional population of over 10 million

• Cairo, Egypt

• Mumbai, India

• Beijing, China

• Dhaka, Bangladesh

• Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto, Japan

Metacities

Regional population over 20 million

• Tokyo, Japan

• Delhi, India

• Shanghai, China

• Sao Paulo, Brazil

• Mexico City

Wave of development

First, homes move to suburbs → Second, moving retail to where we live (decentralization) → Third, edge cities - move jobs to where people live

Nodal cities

Command centers on a regional and occasionally national level; not as powerful as world cities but lots of power writhing a region of a country

• Denver, Phoenix, Minneapolis

• Some corporate headquarters

• Regional offices for transnational companies

• Major entertainment, cultural, & economic centers in region

• To maintain global connectivity → have dev. road systems/airports & advanced comm. networks that connect smaller cities to world cities

• Cities specializing in certain functions= another level of UH-Austin, TX (government), Las Vegas, NV (entertainment), Elkhart, IN (manufacturing), Norfolk, VA (military)

Limitations of Rank-Size Rule

• Does not explain distribution of cities or interaction btwn cities

• Can’t compare two cities in diff. countries bc define cities differently; works better for using metropolitan areas

Assumptions behind Central Place Theory

• Flat surface, no barriers such as mountains

• Same soil quality

• Evenly distributed population and purchasing power

• inform transportation linking settlements to each other

• From any place, any good/service sold in all directions

Gravity Model + Uses/Limitations

Idea that larger and closer places will have mor interaction than places that are smaller and farther; distance decay - also takes into account distances between two cities and their size

Uses:

• To predict flow of workers, shoppers, migrants, information, economic activity, etc

• More flows to big cities and between nearer cities

  • NYC and NJ are a metro region w incr public transport BUT NYC and LA also have a lot of interaction, even though they’re on opposite sides of US

Limitations:

• Assumes locations with no barriers

• Not accounting for how political, physical, or cultural barriers influence interaction between cities

  • Tourist attractions, religious sites, govt centers distort model

Concentric Zone Model

a model of a city's internal organization developed by E.W. Burgess organized in five concentric rings that model the arrangement of different residential zones radiating outward from a central business district

• Created by E.W Burgess, 1920s

• Based on Chicago, Illinois

• Five zones (center to outward):

  • CBD → Downtown, high density, commercial heart of city, focus of transport and services

  • Transition zone → Mixed industrial uses w low-cost deteriorating housing; high density, city-center workers

  • Low-Cost Residential → Working-class housing, some stability/better neighborhoods

  • Moderate-Cost Residential → Middle-class family housing; suburbs more expensive

  • Commuters Zone → Expensive, larger homes in the exurbs; low density, ppl who work here can afford to commute into the city every day to work

• Poor in second and third ring (interior of city) while rich are in fifth ring (outskirts of city)

• Criticism: Doesn’t apply to many cities

Hoyt Sector Model

a model of a city's internal organization, developed by Homer Hoyt, that focuses on transportation and communication as the drivers of the city's layout and organizes residential areas as wedges radiating outward from a central business district

• Homers Hoyt, 1930s

• Based on Chicago, IL

• City’s organization focused on transportation and communication as determining factor for city’s layout; wedges

• 5 Zones (center - outward):

  • CBD → Downtown, high density

  • Manufacturing and industry → SOME lower-class housing, followed a major route of transportation (railway, road, canal, harbor) area for FAST and CHEAP transport of products

  • Low-Income Residential → Working-class housing, along manufacturing area so people get to their jobs, ethnic neighborhoods from immigration

  • Moderate-Income Residential → Middle-class housing, suburbs

  • High-Income Residential → Upperclass housing, along transport line, extends outward from CBD

• Poor are in third zone, following industrial sector where they worked. Rich are in fifth sector

Similarities and Differences between Burgess and Hoyt

Similarities:

• Growth outward from CBD = higher income people and lower income near CBD/industrial zone

• Homes/property size larger the farther out from CBD bc Bid Rent Theory (cheaper land further out)

• CBD is in the center

Differences:

• Brgess based on sociology and Hoyt on economics

• Burgess → concentric rings

• Hoyt → wedges

Urban Bid Rent Theory

The further away from the CBD, the cheaper the land; inverse relationship

Residential Zones

Ordinances set limits on the density and size of houses in specific zones - only large homes, only small homes, only apartment buildings

Pros/Cons of Zoning Regulations

Pros:

• Various areas created to meet peoples’ specific life styles/wants

• Separate loud industrial areas (noise/air pollution) from residential areas

• Can promote growth of communes through redevelopment or infill development

Cons:

• Can prevent socioeconomic or cultural diversity

• Decentralization occurs in wealthier areas decrease job opportunities and consumer choices and services in less valued areas

• Prevents mixed-use (residential and commercial) creating walkability and diverse communities

Municipal + Municipality

Municipal → Refers to the local govt of a city or town and the services it provides

Municipality → Refers to a local entity that is all under the same jurisdiction