Thinking, IQ, and Memory

Thinking

Manipulation of mental representations to draw inferences and conclusions.

Mental Image

Representation of objects or events that are not present.

Concepts

Mental category we form to group objects, events, or situations that share common characteristics or features.

Cognitive Schema

An integrated mental network of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations concerning a particular topic or aspect of the world.

Prototype

A typical best example incorporating the major features of a concept.

Formal Concept

Rigid rules or features that define a particular concept.

Natural Concept

Concepts that form from everyday experience and do not have boundaries that are sharply defined.

Concept Hierarchy

A means to keep mental information organized from basic concepts to specific ones.

Superordinate Category

A broad category that encompasses more specific categories.

Basic Category

A category that is more specific than a superordinate category but broader than a subordinate category.

Subordinate Category

A more specific category within a basic category.

Whorfian Hypothesis

The idea that the words used to describe concepts may influence how we think about things.

Subconscious Processes

Mental processes occurring outside of conscious awareness but accessible to consciousness when necessary.

Nonconscious Processes

Mental processes occurring outside of and not available to conscious awareness.

Steven Kosslyn's Experiment

People took the same amount of time to mentally scan the image as they did to visually scan it.

Implicit learning

Acquired knowledge about something without being aware of how you did so, and without being able to state exactly what you have learned.

Mindlessness

Mental inflexibility, inertia and obliviousness to the present context.

Convergent Thinking

Thinking where there is an answer (e.g., teacher wants students to 'converge' on the right answer).

Divergent Thinking

Thinking creatively, brainstorming.

Incubation

Pausing when creative thought is exhausted to allow your mind to work on the problem.

Problem Solving

Thinking and behavior directed toward attaining a goal that is not readily available. Must understand the problem correctly to accurately solve it.

Metacognition

Thinking about one's own problem solving strategies, allowing humans to evaluate the success of their approaches.

Algorithms

A problem solving strategy that guarantees the solution to the problem, not always the most efficient method. Examples: a math formula, a recipe.

Heuristics

A rule-of-thumb problem solving strategy that makes a solution more likely and efficient but does not guarantee a solution.

Trial & Error

Trying a variety of solutions and eliminating those that don't work.

Deductive Reasoning

A tool of formal logic in which a conclusion necessarily follows from a set of observations or propositions (premises).

Inductive Reasoning

A tool of formal logic in which a conclusion probably follows from a set of observations or propositions or premises, but could be false.

Inductive Problem Solving

Discover the rule, continue the series or supply the missing item in the series.

Insight

The sudden realization of the solution to a problem.

Unconscious Problem Solving

You're not aware of the thought process that led you to an insight.

Aha! Moment

A burst of right temporal lobe EEG activity accompanied insight solutions word problems.

Decision Making

The process of making choices by identifying a decision, gathering information, and assessing alternative resolutions.

Single Feature Model

Make a decision by focusing on only one feature.

Additive Model

Systematically evaluate the important features of each alternative.

Elimination-by-Aspects

Rate choices based on features and eliminate those that do not meet the desired criteria.

Thinking Creatively

Creativity is the ability to produce new and valuable ideas.

Ingredients of Creativity

Expertise, imaginative thinking skills, venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, and creative environment.

Cognitive Skills in Other Species

Researchers make inferences about other species' consciousness and intelligence based on behavior.

Humans are not the only species to display insight, as seen in chimpanzees.

They can also understand numbers and concepts

Various species have displayed creative tool use, including forest-dwelling chimpanzees and elephants.

Baboons exhibit voice-recognition skills within their troops.

Great apes and dolphins demonstrate the ability to recognize themselves in mirrors.

Elephants display learning, remembering, and cooperation abilities.

What is the Availability Heuristic?

The tendency to judge the probability of an event by how easily examples come to mind.

How can the Availability Heuristic affect perceptions of risk?

People may overestimate risks from events that are more memorable, like plane crashes, while underestimating risks from less publicized events, like asthma.

What factors influence memory recall in decision making?

Recent events, emotional or vivid experiences, familiar or personal experiences, and personal attitudes and values.

What are common fears influenced by our ancestral history?

Fears of things we cannot control, immediate threats, and those that are readily available in memory.

What is the Representativeness Heuristic?

Judging the likelihood of events based on how well they match a prototype, which can lead to stereotypes.

What is a common error associated with the Representativeness Heuristic?

Ignoring base rates and making snap judgments based on prototypes.

What is Problem Framing?

The way an issue is presented, which can influence decisions and judgments.

What is a Mental Set?

A tendency to approach problems in a particular way, often based on past experiences.

How can Mental Sets be both helpful and harmful?

They can make problem-solving efficient but may hinder fresh insights or new approaches.

What is Overconfidence in decision making?

The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one's knowledge and judgments.

What is Fixation in problem solving?

A mental set that hinders the solution of a problem by limiting perspective.

What is Functional Fixedness?

The inability to see an object as having a function other than its usual one.

What is the Hindsight Bias?

The tendency to believe one could have predicted an event after knowing the outcome.

What is the Confirmation Bias?

The tendency to seek out information that confirms one's existing beliefs.

What is the Gambler's Fallacy?

The belief that past events can influence the probability of future independent events.

What is the Sunk-Cost Fallacy?

The tendency to continue an endeavor once an investment in money, effort, or time has been made.

What is Anchoring & Adjustment?

A cognitive bias where people rely too heavily on the first piece of information encountered (the anchor) when making decisions.

What is Illusory Correlation?

The perception of a relationship between two variables when none exists.

What is the Illusion of Control?

The belief that one can control or influence outcomes that are actually determined by chance.

What does Regression toward the Average refer to?

The statistical tendency for extreme scores or behaviors to return to their average over time.

Recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier. Example: Essay, fill-in-the-blank, and short answer test questions test recall.

Recognition

A measure of memory in which a person must identify items learned earlier. Example: Multiple choice and matching test questions test recognition.

Congruency

CONTEXT-Dependent Memory, STATE-DEPENDENT MEMORY, Mood-Congruent Memory.

Testing Effect

Assessment vs. restudying.

What is intelligence defined as in psychology?

The ability to derive information, learn from experience, adapt to the environment, understand, and correctly utilize thought and reason.

What are the key components of intelligence according to modern theories?

Information processing, problem solving, creativity, and the ability to adjust to the environment.

What does emotional intelligence encompass?

The ability to identify, express, and regulate emotions in oneself and others.

What is the significance of the Intelligence Quotient (IQ)?

IQ is a measure used historically for educational services and assessing mental abilities.

What does the bell-shaped curve represent in IQ distribution?

It shows that most people have IQ scores clustered around the average, with fewer people at the extremes.

What are the three main psychometric principles in measuring intelligence?

Standardization, reliability, and validity.

What does standardization in IQ testing involve?

Ensuring uniform procedures, environment, and scoring for all test-takers.

How is reliability measured in IQ tests?

Through test-retest methods and split-half comparisons.

What is validity in the context of intelligence testing?

The degree to which a test measures what it intends to measure and predicts future performance.

What is stereotype threat?

The anxiety or concern one feels about confirming negative stereotypes related to their social group, which can affect performance.

What factors can lead to discrepancies in IQ scores among different groups?

Interpretation bias, poverty, discrimination, and inequalities, with no genetic basis for these differences.

What is the difference between achievement and aptitude in academic assessments?

Achievement measures current understanding, while aptitude predicts future performance.

What mindset beliefs about intelligence differ between cultures?

Asian cultures often view math ability as a result of effort, while Americans may see it as innate.

What environmental influences can affect IQ scores?

Home environment, education, healthcare, nutrition, and exposure to toxins.

What do twin studies suggest about the influence of genetics and environment on IQ?

Both genetics and environment significantly affect IQ scores, with identical twins showing more similarity than fraternal twins.

How do adoption studies contribute to our understanding of IQ?

They show that children's verbal ability scores can become more like their biological parents' scores over time.

What are some reasons intelligent individuals may fail?

Lack of motivation, impulse control, perseverance, and the ability to translate thought into action.

What is the role of cultural values in IQ test performance?

Cultural values influence attitudes towards exams, motivation, and problem-solving strategies.

What is the impact of expectations and stereotypes on IQ scores?

Expectations shaped by cultural stereotypes can negatively affect performance and outcomes.

What systemic issues can affect IQ and achievement?

Education, healthcare, nutrition, and technology disparities.

What is the significance of socio-cultural responsiveness in intelligence testing?

It addresses how cultural biases in tests can affect the fairness and accuracy of assessments.

What challenges arise in creating culture-fair IQ tests?

Different cultures have varied problem-solving strategies, making it difficult to design universally fair tests.

What is the concept of 'growth mindset' in relation to intelligence?

The belief that intelligence can be developed through effort and learning, as opposed to being fixed.

What are the two types of rehearsal used to prolong memory storage?

Maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal.

What is highly superior autobiographical memory?

A condition where individuals can recall an extraordinary number of personal life events in vivid detail.

What is anterograde amnesia?

The inability to form new memories, often related to damage in the hippocampus.

What does anterograde amnesia indicate about the hippocampus?

It shows that the hippocampus is essential for encoding new memories and transferring them from short-term to long-term memory.

What is retrograde amnesia?

The inability to remember past episodic information, commonly occurring after a head injury.

What is memory consolidation?

The gradual, physical process of converting a long-term memory into a stable and enduring memory code.

When does most memory consolidation occur?

During sleep.

How does aging affect memory recall?

The ability to recall new information declines with age, but recognition of new information remains stable.

What is infantile amnesia?

The inability to recall events from the first few years of life.

What are possible reasons for infantile amnesia?

Differences between the infant's world and the adult's, ongoing development of the hippocampus, and lack of verbal labeling of experiences.

What role does acetylcholine play in memory?

Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that is important for memory and learning, particularly in conditions like Alzheimer's disease.

What is the relationship between the hippocampus and implicit memories?

Implicit memories, such as procedural memories, may not involve the hippocampus, while explicit memories do.

What does research suggest about elderly individuals' memory retrieval?

Elderly individuals may need more time to retrieve memories but can perform as well as younger individuals when given sufficient time.

What is the encoding specificity principle?

The idea that memories are more easily retrieved when the context at the time of encoding matches the context at the time of retrieval.

What is the significance of sleep in memory processes?

Sleep is crucial for memory consolidation, helping to stabilize and strengthen memories.