[PIPH 111] Week 1-2: History of Pharmacy

Pharmacy

• derived from Greek word “Pharmakon” which means drug or medicine

• the art, practice, or profession of preparing, preserving, compounding, and dispensing medical drug

• establishment and place where drugs or medicines are sold

Pharmakon

drug or medicine

Drug

a chemical substance used in the treatment, mitigation

(alleviate or ease symptoms), prevention, or diagnosis of

disease or used to otherwise enhance physical or mental wellbeing

barium sulfate

diagnostic agents

paracetamol

treatment

vaccines

prevention

Pharmacists

• They are also known as druggists

• They are healthcare professionals who practice in pharmacy, the field of health sciences focusing on safe and effective medication use.

mortar and pestle

It has long been used as a pharmaceutical symbol in Britain and on the European mainland, and is still widely employed as a pharmacy shop sign in Scotland.

The _______ are tools of traditional pharmacy, hence their use as an easily recognizable visual motif.

Rx symbol

The recipe sign appears at the start of prescriptions. Although universally accepted as an abbreviation of “recipe” (Latin for ‘take thou’)

It has also been suggested that it is the astronomical sign of the planet JUPITER.

Bowl of Hygeia

• The bowl with a snake coiled around it ---is called the ______ with the serpent of Epidaurus.

Hygeia

• Aesculapius’s daughter and a Greek Goddess of Health.

• Her symbol was a serpent drinking from a bowl.

• Healing through medicine

Caduceus

• The symbol of two snakes on a staff is called the Caduceus.

• The staff, depicted with wings, is that of Mercury (Roman) or Hermes (Greek), messenger of the Gods and also God of commerce.

caveman, potato

PALEOlithic - ?

Paleo diet - ?

BC or BCE

Before Christ or before the common (current) era

AD

Anno Domi, Latin for “in the year of the Lord”

prehistoric pharmacy

• Since the dawn of humanity, pharmacy has been part of everyday life.

• By trial and error, folk knowledge of the healing properties of certain atural substances grew.

shamans

• Faith Healers

• Because both disease and its treatment involve this world of spirits, they need a specialist who understood and could control the spirits.

  • Oral rite

  • Manual rite

Pharmacy in antiquity

the ancient past, especially the period before the Middle Ages.

• Changes occurred gradually influence concepts of disease and healing.

• Each civilization developed its own characteristics, but each grew out of previously existing cultures.

• This debt to precedent cultures was particularly evident in pharmacy and medicine. This is because the animistic (SPIRIT)-religious-magical notions of disease and its treatment did not disappear.

Mesopotamian

______ civilizations formed on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in what is today Iraq and Kuwait.

... Some of the major ______ civilizations include the Sumerian, Assyrian, Akkadian, and Babylonian civilizations.

Mesopotamia

• They believe that one could avoid disease by leading a righteous life and worshipping the proper God.

• Mesopotamians made offerings to the ghost of their ancestors, respected taboos, and even acquire magical accessories to keep away evil.

• 3 Deities/Gods:

  • Ninazu

  • Ningishrida

  • Gula

Ninazu

Lord physician

Deity

or god is a supernatural being considered divine or sacred.

Ningishrida

son of Ninazu; carries staff with snake around it.

Gula

• Goddess of death and healing

• Patroness of the physician

• Great lady of physicians

3 Main Medical Practitioners in Mesopotamia Period

1. Asu

2. Ashipu

3. Baru

• they believe that disease is a CONSEQUENCE OF A SIN. Cures therefore should involve SPIRITUAL RELIGIOUS PURIFICATION AND CATHARSIS.

2100 B.C.E.

LIBRARY OF NINEVEH

• Collected by Assyrian King Ashurbanipal in 17th century BC

  • 32,000 clay tablets

  • 250 drugs of vegetable origin

  • 120 of mineral origin

  • 180 from other sources.

Assyrian King Ashurbanipal

2100 BCE; Library of Nineveh collected by ??

Ancient Egypt

• they believed that a sick person was one out of harmony with the world, having irked the gods, the dead or the spirits.

• the logical way to restore harmony was by religious and magical means

• Deities:

  • Thoth

  • Imhotep

Thoth

Deity in Ancient Egypt; the inventor of science and medicine and patron of physicians

Imhotep

Deity in Ancient Egypt; a mortal of the third millennium BC who was deified in Egypt during Greco-Roman times.

Papyrus Ebers or Ebers Papyrus

• Ancient Egypt (500 B.C.)

• Most important pharmaceutical record is this

• It is a collection of 800 prescriptions, mentioning 700 drugs.

• The ____ is an Egyptian Medical papyrus of herbal knowledge dating to 1550 BC.

Georg Ebers

Papyrus Ebers

• Among the oldest and most important medical papyri of Ancient Egypt, it was purchased at Luxor (Thebes) in the winter of 1873–74 by _____.

• It is currently kept at the library of the University of Leipzig, in Germany.

Ancient Greece

• The civilization developed by the Hellenes was individualistic, speculative, this-worldly, and concerned with the concepts of liberty and aesthetics—and Greek medicine and pharmacy developed within this cultural framework.

• Hippocrates - Father of Medicine

The momentous achievement of Greek medicine was it seeking a natural basis for disease, its causes and its treatment.

Greek Physicians

• Prepared their own medicines and left prescription behind for family members to compound and administer

Theophrastus

• about 300 B.C.

• The greatest early Greek philosophers and natural scientists, is called “Father of Botany.”

• His botanical works, De Historia Plantarum and De Causis Plantarum

Shen-nung

• Ancient China Eastern Medicine

• credited the father of pharmaceutics by the scholar-ruler Liu An in second century BC.

• Father Chinese Medicine

Pen-ts’ao

• translated “materia medica”, “fundamentals of samples”, and “the botanical basis of pharmacy.

Middle Ages

• 400AD - 1453

• A period from Fall of Rome to Fall of Constantinople.

Claudius Galen

• Middle Ages (400AD - 1453)

• A prominent Greek physician, a surgeon, and philosopher in the Roman empire.

• His principles of preparing and compounding medicines ruled in the Western world for 1,500 years; and his name still is associated with that class of pharmaceuticals compounded by mechanical means - galenicals.

Claudius Galen

• Middle Ages (400AD-1453)

• He was the originator of the formula for a cold cream, essentially similar to that known today. -SPF

• Three remedies that were to become universally celebrated and esteemed, although they were not original with him:

  • hierra picra

  • terra sigillata

  • theriaca (theriac)

Hiera Picra

• It is the oldest pharmaceutical compound in existence

• a cathartic powder made of aloes and canella bark.

• Galen’s formula called for aloes, to which spices and other herbs were added and with the addition of honey

Terra Sigillata

____ or sealed earth was a greasy clay.

It was formed into large, tablet-like units upon which the seal of the place origin was impressed. It was used as an antidote for poisons, dysenteries, fever and other illnesses.

Theriaca

• It is also known as treacle, was the pharmaceutical par excellence

• Contained varying number of ingredients, sometimes more than seventy

• Contents were largely herbal, opium(analgesic) playing a prominent role, castoreum, viper flesh and skink (lizard)

• Intended as an ANTIDOTE to the bites of wild creatures, became eventually a universal antidote for poisons and remedy used in many illnesses.

Mithridates VI

• Middle Ages

• King of Pontus (about 100 B.C.)

• The royal toxicologist

• Makes the art of poisoning, but also the art of preventing and counteracting poisoning.

• He used himself as well as his prisoners as "guinea pigs" on which to test poisons and antidotes.

• His famed formula of alleged panantidotal powers, "Mithridatum,"

Pedanios Dioscorides

• Middle Ages (400AD-1453)

• first century A.D.

• He was a physician, pharmacologist and botanist, the author of De Materia Medica —a 5-volume encyclopedia about herbal medicine and related medicinal substances (a pharmacopeia), that was widely read for more than 1,500 years.

• Dioscorides wrote De Materia Medica in Greek, his native language. He was employed as a medic in the Roman army.

Mohamedanism

• new civilization arose

• Middle Ages: Contribution of Arabs

• Greek writings about medicine were translated to Arabic.

• Works of Galen and Dioscorides were accepted by the Arabs.

Hunain ibn-Ishāq

• TRANSLATED the entire available Hippocratic corpus and works of Galen, Dioscorides, Oribasius and Paul of Aegina.

• Middle Ages: Contribution of Arabs

Sābūr ibn-Sahl

• compiled a PROTOTYPE of the formularies now used today—it was a compilation of formulas or recipes for medications, arranged in an orderly (usually alphabetical) fashion and including instructions for compounding and suggestions for their use.

• It was called al–Aqrābādhīn al-Kabīr

• Prototypical drug

Avicenna

• Ibn-Sina, known as _____

• A Persian philosopher and physician sought to unify all medical knowledge in his Canon medicinae.

Canon medicinae

It contained a treatise on poisons, sections on the preparation of medicines, and a long list of medicinal recipes.

Rhazes & Avicenna

• Middle Ages: Contribution of Arabs

• (860-932) & (980-1063)

• They added to the writings of Greek.

• Rejected the old idea that foul tasting worked best in medicine

• they developed and exert effort in their dosage forms ----elegant and palatable through silvering of pills and use of syrups . Caplet-bioflu- ,

King Frederick II of Sicily

• 1240 A.D.

• King of Sicily, King of Jerusalem, King of Germany & Italy & Holy Roman Empire.

• In mid 13th century (1240) He codified the separate practice of pharmacy from medicine.

Modern Europe

• Public pharmacies became relatively common in Southern Europe (Apothecary)- drugstore-pharmacy- chemist

• Writings of Greek translated to Arabic were further translated to Latin for the use of European schools.

Modern Europe

During the Renaissance- rebirth, medicine moved more boldly outside the rather rigid framework of clerical and Arabic Scholasticism.

Paracelsus

• He introduced the idea of the body as a chemical process which became more widely applied in pharmacy.

• Chemicals were used more boldly for internal therapy, and extraction of medicinally active quintessences from nature’s resources became a goal.

Paracelsus

• Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim

• He is referred to as the father of toxicology for his claim that, “All things are poison, and nothing is without poison.”

• Sparked the growth of modern Pharmaceutical Sciences

• Process of distillation and extraction was introduced in the laboratory research.

Quinine

• Discovery of Quinine (1820)

• _____ drug was discovered to treat MALARIAL FEVERS.

• From cinchona bark (Cinchona officialis)

• Advocate of chemical medicines displaced the therapeutic agreement of Galenism which had lasted for nearly 1,500 years

Germ theory of disease

• Modern Europe

• by Pasteur and Koch (1880-1890)

• Robert Koch proved that microorganism causes the disease (1876)

• Established experimental steps for directly linking a specific microbe to a specific disease.

Louis Pasteur

He was a French chemist and microbiologist renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation, and pasteurization.

Robert Koch

German physician and one of the founders of bacteriology.

The germ theory of disease

3 vaccines for fowl cholera

1. Pasteurella multocida (1881)

2. Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis) (1881)

3. Rabies (1885)

• Discovery of vaccine-prophylactic by Pasteur

Emil Von Behring

He developed diphtheria antitoxin

Alexander Fleming

penicillin

Paul Ehrlich’s Salvarsan

• 1910

• First discovered chemotherapeutic agents.

• Father of chemotherapy

• Introduced the “selective toxicity” principle

• He also discovered Salvarsan (Asphernamine)

1930s

75% of Rx required compounding by a pharmacist

1950s

25% of Rx required compounding by a pharmacist

1960s

only 4% (1 in 25 Rx) needed compounding

1970s

only 1% ( 1 in 100 Rx ) needed compounding skills

20th century

• Pharmacists were not a loss for work as the number of prescriptions grew, or new effective drugs came into the market.

• Chain drugstores displacing independent corner drugstores especially in urban areas.

20th century

• Laws regulating the production of drugs and pharmacy were modernized.

• BS Pharmacy was extended to 5 years and curriculum continued to emphasize physical sciences which underlie the making of medicines.

Pharmacy in the USA

• Apothecary shops first appeared in Boston, New York and Philadelphia.

Christopher Marshall

• Irish immigrant, developed a pioneer pharmaceutical enterprise

• (November 6, 1709 – May 4, 1797) was a leader in the American Revolution

Marshall Apothecary in Philadelphia

• This was a leading retail pharmacy, large-scale chemical manufacturer, a place for training pharmacists, and an important supply depot during the American Revolution.

• Most of the early American apothecaries sold various items including crude drugs, chemicals, imported nostrums (secret cures), spices, teas, and coffees.

Crude drugs

These are vegetable or animal drugs that contain natural substances that have undergone only the processes of collection and drying.

Opium poppy

Cinchona bark

patents for new drugs

_____ were first granted in 1790 by newly founded United States of America.

• Such patents were granted for so-called secret cures.

• Patents granted protection of the knowledge of the ingredients for 17 years.

American Pharmaceutical Association

• America’s first Association of Pharmacists

• founded in 1852, is the first-established professional society of pharmacists in the United States

• It was started to improve communication among pharmacists, to develop standards for education and apprenticeship, and to improve the quality control of imported drugs.

• The American Pharmacists Association

Philadelphia College of Pharmacy

The first college of pharmacy was founded in the United States in 1821.

William Procter Jr.

• late professor of pharmacy in the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy

• He was an American pharmacist. He graduated from the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy in 1837. He is known for his role in establishing the American Pharmacists Association and his work on the United States Pharmacopeia.

From early 1900 through the early 1940s druggists continued to compound and prepare medicines for patients.

Drug manufacturers were starting to discover the active ingredients of various products derived from nature.

Gradually, medicines were made with active ingredients and made available for druggists to dispense directly to patients.

Shortly, after World War II (1945) a young entrepreneur from Erie, Pennsylvania, named Jack Eckerd made his mark by starting self service in the pharmacy

Benjamin Franklin

The first hospital pharmacy was established at the Pennsylvania Hospital started by _________, in Philadelphia in 1751/1972

Jonathan Roberts

• The first hospital pharamacist

• The first salaried apothecary, _______, was hired in 1752

John Morgan

a pharmacist and a physician championed prescription writing and the separation of the two professions

Harvey Whitney

The first hospital pharmacy internship program was started by ________ in 1927 at the University of Michigan Hospital in Ann Harbor-

A section for hospital pharmacists within the American Pharmaceutical Association (APhA) was established in 1936.