Unit 4: The Institutions EVERY TERM EVERY BRANCH

Formal power

Power delegated to a branch of government explicitly listed in the U.S. Constitution

Informal power

Powers not listed in the U.S. Constitution but implied or granted

Bicameral

Two-house legislature

Senate

Designed to represent states equally; has 100 members and debate is less formal than the House; one-third elected every two years; bills typically reach the floor by unanimous consent; senators can request a hold, filibuster, or motion for cloture

House of Representatives

Designed to represent the people; has 435 members; debate is more formal; all members elected every two years; revenue bills originate here; Rules Committee sets debate rules; may form a Committee of the Whole or use a discharge petition

Federal budget

Generated by Congress to address both mandatory and discretionary spending

Oversight

Congressional authority to ensure laws are implemented as intended through review, investigation, hearings, and power of the purse

Speaker of the House

Elected by a majority of House members and presides over legislative work in the House

Bill

A draft or proposed law in Congress

Committee

Group that conducts hearings, debates, and mark-ups; leadership determined by majority party; most bills die in committee

Committee hearing

Gathering of evidence and testimony before full chamber debate and vote

Mark up

Revisions or additions to a bill during committee consideration

Rules Committee

Establishes debate rules for House bills

Committee of the Whole

Formed in the House to expedite debate on bills

Discharge petition

Allows a House member to bring a bill to the floor; rarely used

Unanimous consent

Typical Senate procedure to bring bills to the floor for debate and vote

Hold

Request by a senator to prevent a bill from reaching the floor

Filibuster

Tactic to prolong debate and delay or block a vote on a bill

Cloture

Procedure to end debate in the Senate

Conference committee

Reconciles differences between House and Senate versions of a bill

Mandatory spending

Spending required by law for entitlement programs like Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid

Entitlements

Government-provided benefits or services to which individuals are legally entitled

Social Security

Federal program providing retirement, disability, and survivor benefits funded by payroll taxes

Medicare

Federal health insurance program for qualified elderly Americans

Medicaid

Federal and state health program for low-income households

Discretionary spending

Annual spending approved for defense, education, and infrastructure

Infrastructure

Government-built and maintained facilities and utilities such as roads, bridges, and water systems

Pork barrel

Funding for local projects added to larger appropriations bills

Logrolling

Trading votes or combining legislation to gain passage

Partisan voting

When legislators vote based on party affiliation

Polarization

Movement of political attitudes toward ideological extremes

Gridlock

Inability of Congress to act due to lack of consensus

Reapportionment

Redistribution of congressional seats based on the U.S. Census every ten years

Redistricting

Redrawing congressional district boundaries by state legislatures

Gerrymandering

Redrawing districts to give one party an unfair advantage

Divided government

One party controls the presidency and another controls at least one chamber of Congress

Lame duck

Outgoing politician still in office until successor takes over

Trustee representative

Representative who votes using their own judgment and expertise

Delegate representative

Representative who votes according to constituents' preferences

Politico representative

Representative who alternates between trustee and delegate roles

Policy agenda

List of issues the government agrees to consider for policymaking

Cabinet

Advisory group to the president made up of department heads and the vice president

Executive Office of the President (EOP)

Offices supporting the president's agenda, including the White House Office, NSC, and OMB

Veto

President's formal rejection of a bill; may be overridden by two-thirds of Congress

Pocket veto

President lets a bill expire without signing it; cannot be overridden

Line item veto

Now-unconstitutional presidential power to veto specific parts of a bill

Commander in Chief

President's formal power to lead the armed forces

Executive agreement

Informal presidential agreement with another nation without Senate ratification

Treaty

Formal international agreement requiring Senate approval

Bargaining and persuasion

President's informal power to secure congressional support

Executive order

Presidential directive managing the federal government; implied by executive power or congressional delegation

Signing statement

President's interpretation or intention regarding a newly signed law

Senate confirmation

Senate's check on presidential appointments for key positions and judgeships

Congressional agenda

Set of issues Congress considers; conflicts with the president's agenda may prompt executive action

Federalist 70

Argues for a single, energetic executive to ensure effective governance and protection of liberty

22nd Amendment

Limits presidents to two terms, reflecting fear of excessive executive power

State of the Union

Formal presidential address to Congress and the nation to outline policy priorities

Bully pulpit

President's use of media and public visibility to shape national agenda

Agenda setting

Process by which the president uses formal and informal powers to influence policy priorities

Article III

Establishes the judicial branch and life tenure for federal judges

Federalist 78

Argues for judicial independence and life tenure as checks on the other branches

Judicial review

Power of courts to declare laws or executive actions unconstitutional

Precedent

Legal principle established by previous court decisions

Stare decisis

Doctrine that courts should follow precedent in similar cases

Jurisdiction

Legal authority of a court to hear cases

Original jurisdiction

Authority of a court to hear a case first

Appellate jurisdiction

Authority to review cases decided by lower courts

Judicial activism

Belief that courts should use judicial review to promote justice and policy change

Judicial restraint

Belief that courts should defer to precedent and elected branches

Federal bureaucracy

Network of departments and agencies implementing and enforcing federal laws and regulations

Regulation

Rules issued by agencies to implement congressional laws

Executive department

Major division of the executive branch led by a secretary appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate

Executive agency

Independent agency outside executive departments created to manage specific functions (e.g., EPA, NASA, CIA)

Independent regulatory agency / commission

Agency that regulates industries and operates independently from presidential control (e.g., FEC, SEC, Fed)

Government corporation

Government-owned business providing public services (e.g., USPS, Amtrak, FDIC)

Issue network

Temporary alliances among various actors to influence policy

Iron triangle

Stable relationship among congressional committees, bureaucratic agencies, and interest groups in policymaking

Merit system

Hiring and promotion based on qualifications and performance

Patronage

Hiring based on political loyalty rather than merit

Discretionary power

Authority granted to agencies to interpret and implement laws

Rule-making authority

Power of bureaucratic agencies to create and enforce regulations

Department of Homeland Security

Handles public security, terrorism, borders, and disaster response

Department of Transportation

Manages national transportation systems and infrastructure projects

Department of Veterans Affairs

Provides health care and benefits to military veterans

Department of Education

Oversees federal education programs and policies

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

Regulates environmental protection and public health standards

Federal Elections Commission (FEC)

Enforces campaign finance laws in federal elections

Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)

Regulates and enforces laws governing financial markets and investors

Power of the purse

Congress's ability to fund or defund programs to control the bureaucracy

Compliance monitoring

Ensures that bureaucratic agencies properly use funds and follow regulations