CLEP Textbook Part 7

bottom-up implementation

a strategy in which the federal government allows local areas some flexibility to meet their specific challenges and needs in implement policy.

congressional budget office

the congressional office that scores the spending or revenue impact of all proposed legislation to assess its net effect on the budget.

debt

the total amount the government owes across all years.

deficit

the annual amount by which expenditures are greater than revenues: represents the shortfall in funding that requires borrowing to cover.

discretionary spending

government spending that Congress must pass legislation to authorize each year: this spending is not mandated by existing laws and is often subject to the annual appropriations process.

distributive policy

a policy that collects payments or resources broadly but concentrates direct benefits on relatively few: government policies that allocate resources or benefits to particular groups while distributing costs among a wider population.

entitlement

a program that guarantees benefits to members of a specific group or segment of the population: funded by predetermined criteria and are often mandatory, such as Social Security or Medicare.

excise taxes

taxes applied to specific goods or services as a source of revenue: often levied on items like alcohol, tobacco, and gasoline, and are included in the price of the product.

free-market economics

a school of thought that believes the forces of supply and demand, working without any government intervention, are the most effective way for markets to operate.

Keynesian economics

an economic policy based on the idea that economic growth is closely tied to the ability of individuals to consume goods: advocates for government intervention to manage economic cycles and boost demand during downturns.

laissez-faire

an economic policy that assumes the key to economic growth and development is for the government to allow private markets to operate efficiently without interference.

libertarians

people who believe the government almost always operates less efficiently than the private sector and that its actions should be kept to a minimum.

mandatory spending

government spending earmarked for entitlement programs guaranteeing support to those who meet certain qualifications.

Medicaid

a health insurance program for low-income citizens.

Medicare

an entitlement health insurance program for older people and retirees who no longer get health insurance through their work.

progressive tax

a tax that tends to increase the effective tax rate as the wealth or income of the tax payer increases: higher earners pay a larger percentage of their income in taxes compared to lower earners: designed to reduce inequality by redistributing wealth.

recession

a temporary contraction of the economy in which there is no economic growth for two consecutive quarters: marked by declines in consumer spending, business investment, and overall economic activity.

redistributive policy

a policy in which costs are born by a relatively small number of groups or individuals, but benefits are expected to be enjoyed by a different group in society: reduce economic inequality by redistributing resources from wealthier segments to those with less wealth.

regressive tax

a tax applied at a lower overall rate as individuals’ income rises: results in a higher percentage of income being paid by lower earners compared to higher earners.

social security

a social welfare policy for people who no longer receive an income from employment: provides financial assistance to retirees, disabled individuals, and survivors of deceased workers, ensuring a basic level of income.

supply-side economics

an economic policy that assumes economic growth is largely a function of the country’s productive capacity: emphasizes tax cuts and deregulation to stimulate production and investment.

top-down implementation

a strategy in which the federal government dictates the specifics of public policy and each state implements it the same exact way.

public policy process

four major phases: identifying the problem, setting the agenda, implement the policy, and evaluating the results: process is a cycle, because evaluation should feed back into earlier stages and inform future decisions about the policy.

the Federal Reserve Board

central governing body that manages the nation’s monetary policy, regulates banks, and provides financial services to depository institutions: sets the level of interest rates: responsible for maintaining economic stability and controlling inflation.

congressional executive agreement

an international agreement that is not a treaty and this is negotiated by the president and approved by a simple majority of the House and Senate: allows the president to bypass the treaty process, enabling more flexible foreign relations.

foreign policy

a government’s goal in dealing with other countries or regions and the strategy used to achieve them: encompasses diplomatic, military, and economic strategies to promote national interests and maintain international relations.

free trade

a policy in which a country allows the unfettered flow of goods and services between itself and other countries: minimizes or eliminates tariffs, import quotas, and export restrictions.

liberal internationalism

a foreign policy approach to becoming proactively engaged in world affairs by cooperating in a community of nations: emphasizes diplomacy, international institutions, and the promotion of liberal values such as democracy and human rights.

neo-isolationism

a policy of distancing the United States from the United Nations and other international organizations, while still participating in the world economy.

neoconservatism

the belief that, rather than exercising restraint, the United States should aggressively use its might to promote its values and ideals around the world: military intervention for the spread of democracy.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

a cross-national military organization with bases in Belgium and Germany formed to maintain stability in Europe: provide collective defense against aggression and promote security among member countries.

protectionism

a policy in which a country does not permit other countries to sell goods and services within its borders or charges them very high tariffs (import taxes) to do so.

selective engagement

a policy of retaining a strong military presence and remaining engaged across the world.

sole executive agreement

an international agreement that is not a treaty and that is negotiated and approved by the president acting alone.

treaty

an international agreement entered by the United States that requires presidential negotiation with other nation(s), consent by two-thirds of the Senate, and final ratification by the president.

two presidencies thesis

thesis by Wildavsky that there are two distinct presidencies, one for foreign and one for domestic policy, and that presidents are more successful in foreign than domestic policy.

United Nations (UN)

an international organization of nation-states that seeks to promote peace, international relations, and economic and environmental programs.

US foreign policy objectives

protection of the US and its citizens and allies, the assurance of continuing access to international resources and markets, the preservation of a balance of power in the world, and the protection of human rights and democracy.

war powers resolution

federal law that restricts the President's ability to engage US forces in military actions without Congressional consent, requiring notification within 48 hours of deployment and a withdrawal of troops after 60 days unless Congress authorizes continued action.