regents

type shi

Abnormal

Unusual or not normal.

Activate

To turn something on.

Adverse

Harmful or negative.

Advantageous

Helpful or giving a benefit.

Beneficial

Good or helpful.

Breeding

When animals reproduce and have offspring.

Capture

To take or collect something.

Circulate

To move around in a loop or path.

Consistent

Staying the same over time; reliable.

Conserve

To use something carefully so it's not wasted.

Convert

To change something into a different form.

Disproportionately

Too much or too little compared to something else.

Dormant

Not active for a period of time but able to become active again.

Efficient

Getting things done well without wasting time or energy.

Emit

To release or send out (like light, gas, or sound).

Erosion

When wind, water, or ice wears away land.

Excessive

Too much of something.

Extract

To remove something.

Facilitate

To make something easier.

Fluctuate

To go up and down or change often.

Forage

To search for food.

Implement

To start using a plan or rule.

Influx

A large arrival of something, usually all at once.

Infestation

When too many pests or harmful organisms invade an area.

Interfere

To get in the way of something or disturb it.

Invasive

A species that spreads quickly and causes harm to the environment.

Migrate

To move from one place to another, often seasonally.

Optimal

The best or most ideal condition.

Penetrate

To break through or go into something.

Preserve

To protect something so it stays the same over time.

Reduce

To make something smaller or use less of it.

Regulate

To control or manage how something works.

Spawn

When fish or aquatic animals lay eggs.

Sprout

When a plant begins to grow from a seed.

Stimulate

To encourage something to grow, develop, or become active.

Keystone Species

A species with a disproportionately large impact (e.g., Bees pollinating crops).

Trophic Cascade

Chain reactions in a food web caused by changes at the top level.

Forest Fire

Low (controlled burn increases diversity) vs. High (wildfire destroys canopy).

Habitat Fragmentation

Turning habitat into isolated patches (e.g., highways through nature).

Ecological Succession

Ecosystems reset after disturbances.

Desertification

Overgrazing and drought (e.g., Sahel region of Africa) can lead to a permanent transition from grassland to desert.

Central Dogma Path

DNA base sequence → Amino acid sequence → Protein structure → Protein function → Trait.

Transcription

DNA sequence (A, T, C, G) is copied into mRNA in the nucleus.

Translation

mRNA is read by ribosomes to create amino acid chains.

Mitosis

Growth and repair; one cell divides into TWO genetically identical daughter cells.

Differentiation

Development of specialized cells (neurons, epithelial cells).

Cancer

Failure of check-points leading to uncontrolled cell division and tumors.

Stem Cells

Undifferentiated cells that can become any cell type.

Meiosis

Produces gametes (sex cells) with half the chromosome number (n).

Crossing Over

Chromosomes swap sections during meiosis, creating unique genetic combinations.

Mutations

Errors in DNA replication (Deletion, Insertion, Substitution).

Genetic Engineering

Biotechnology like CRISPR allows for direct genetic modification.

Methylation

Methyl groups attached to DNA prevent transcription.

Ovary

Gamete (egg) production.

Fallopian Tube

Site of internal fertilization.

Uterus

Site of internal embryo/fetus development.

Testis

Sperm production.

Vas Deferens

Transports sperm to the urethra.

Fertilization

Haploid sperm (n) + haploid egg (n) → Diploid Zygote (2n).

Environmental Risks

Alcohol, smoking, poor diet, and toxins negatively affect fetal development.

Natural Rights

Life, liberty, property (Locke).

Articles of Confederation

First weak U.S. constitution.

Shays' Rebellion

Showed need for stronger government.

Federalism

Power division between state, national governments.

Great Compromise

Bicameral Congress.

3/5 Compromise

Counted slaves partially for representation.

Confederate States of America

Government of seceded states.

Fort Sumter (1861)

First Civil War battle.

Emancipation Proclamation (1863)

Freed slaves in Confederate states.

Gettysburg Address (1863)

Emphasized unity and equality.

Battle of Gettysburg & Battle of Vicksburg (1863)

Turning point.

Appomattox Court House (1865)

Confederate surrender.

Reconstruction (1865-1877)

13th Amendment

Abolished slavery.

14th Amendment

Citizenship and equal protection.

15th Amendment

Black men's voting rights.

Freedmen's Bureau

Helped former slaves.

Black Codes

Limited Black rights in South.

Sharecropping

Economic dependence for freedmen.

Ku Klux Klan

White supremacist group.

Radical Republicans

Strict Reconstruction policies.

Impeachment of Johnson

Conflict over Reconstruction.

Compromise of 1877

Ended Reconstruction.

Military Reconstruction Act

Divided South into districts.

Civil Rights Act of 1866

Citizenship for former slaves.

Monopoly

Complete industry control by one company.

Robber Barons

Industrialists exploiting workers (e.g., Carnegie, Rockefeller).

Laissez-faire

Minimal government intervention.

Labor Unions

Fought for workers' rights.

Knights of Labor

Early union open to all.

Haymarket Riot 1886

Violent labor protest.

Social Darwinism

"Survival of the fittest" in business.

Tenements

Overcrowded urban apartments.

Political Machines

Corrupt urban organizations.

Sherman Antitrust Act

First law against monopolies.

Muckrakers

Journalists exposing issues.

Upton Sinclair

Exposed meat packing in The Jungle.

Ida Tarbell

Exposed Standard Oil corruption.

Theodore Roosevelt

Progressive president, trust-buster.

Woodrow Wilson

Progressive president, reforms.