Cognitive Processing, Schema Theory and Reconstructive Memory

cognitive

A term used in Psychology to describe anything related to thinking, learning and understanding

mental representations

Mental images or symbols (such as words) used to think about or remember an object, a person, or an event

cognitive processing

The mental processes involved in thinking and learning, such as perception, memory, language, attention, concept formation, and problem solving

cognitive misers

The idea that people look for ways to conserve cognitive energy; they do that by attempting to adopt strategies that simplify complex problems

top-down processing

A schema-driven process that relies upon previous knowledge and experiences to form hypotheses (make sense of) about new incoming information

bottom-up processing

When information from sense receptors is sent to the brain to integrate and process. No previous learning is required and perceptions are only based on stimuli coming from one's current external environment (examples: feeling cold, feeling pain in your toe after stubbing it on something)

Schema

A mental representation, or mental framework, based on previous experience and knowledge, that organizes our information about (and allows us to make sense of) the world

cognitive schemas

An integrated mental network of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations concerning a particular topic or aspect of the world

Schema Theory

Argues that schemas exist to organize information about the world, and to help us make generalizations to more quickly understand the new information we are constantly processing

Person Schemas

Pre-existing knowledge about specific individuals you know (their personality, likes and dislikes, appearance, behaviors, interests, etc.)

Object Schemas

Schemas for what properties an object or animal should have; we develop these through learning and experiences (example: triangles have three sides, a refrigerator has doors and food inside, etc.)

Social Schemas

General knowledge about how people behave in certain social situations

Self Schemas

Schemas, derived from past experience, that represent a person's beliefs and feelings about their self (including your current self, past self and idealized future self); some cognitive therapies involve work to adjust these when they have become obstacles to mental health

Scripts (or Event Schemas)

Patterns of behavior that are learned through our interaction with the environment. They provide general descriptions of what typically occurs, and when it occurs, in a particular situation or location and create expectations for how things will go, based on previous experiences (for example, going to a restaurant, going to a job interview, etc.)

schema assimilation

Using existing schemas to understand the world, and sometimes apply the existing schema to cover more situations you encounter in the world (example: learning that cats are also pets; not just dogs). Does not require major adjustments or the creation of a new schema.

schema accommodation

Changing existing schemas in major ways, or creating new schema, when a person learns new information (or has new experiences) that do not fit the previously existing schema

pattern recognition

The matching of a current sensory input (or stimulus) to information in memory

stereotype

A fixed mental representation (usually an overgeneralization) of a group of individuals; can become a person's schema for a group of people

Effort after meaning

The attempt to match unfamiliar ideas into a familiar framework

memory encoding

Neural processes that change an experience into the memory of that experience

memory storage

Creating a biological trace of the encoded information in memory, which is either consolidated into long term memory or lost

memory retrieval

The process of recalling information stored in memory in cognitive processes like thinking, problem solving, decision making, and more

schema processing

Memory processing based on prior knowledge, in the form of schemas that could result in distortion. It is now believed that this affects memory in all stages (encoding, storage and retrieval)

confabulation

Confusion of an event that happened to someone else with one that happened to you, or a belief that you remember something when it never actually happened

reconstructive memory

The process in which people activate schema that are relevant to an event in order to create it (and then remember it). In other words, we piece together a memory from bits of information we have in our schema, which may distort the memory with information encountered after the event actually occurred.

false memories

Memories for events that never happened, but were suggested by someone or something

misinformation effect

Occurs when post-event, misleading information distorts one's memory of an event

leading questions

A question that suggests which answer is desired

retroactive interference with memory

New information received after an event may alter memory of the event before someone retrieves it

proactive interference with memory

Information from the past (such as schemas) affects the ability to learn new information accurately (as seen in Bartlett’s “War of the Ghosts” study)