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Wilhelm Wundt
given the honour of formally founding experimental psychology
Edward Titchener
Founder of structuralism
William James
Founder of functionalism
John Watson, B.F. Skinner
Founders of Behaviouralism
Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow
Founders of humanism
Ongoing
the scientific method is an ______ process
Explanatory, predictive
A scientific theory is _____ and ______
Testable, falsifiable, parsimonious
Scientific theories (and the hypotheses they generate) must also be:
Parsimonious
preference for simplicity
Falsifiable
possible in principle to make an observation that would show the proposition to be false, even if that observation has not been made
Intergroup Contact Theory
under certain circumstances, positive inter group contact can reduce prejudice toward the out group
Social Comparison Theory
people will evaluate their own abilities by comparing themselves to similar others, especially when more objective measures are unavailable
Social Learning Theory
People can learning by observing others, in the absence of explicit behavioural reproduction or reinforcement
Variable
A characteristic or condition that changes or has different values for different individuals
Dependent Variable
Variable that is measured
Conceptual Definition
Textbook definition, the meaning of the term
Operational Definition
Definition of theoretical construct that is stated in terms of concrete, observable (measurable) procedures
Constructs
Internal attributes or characteristics that cannot be directly observed but are useful for describing and explaining behaviour
Descriptive Methods
Often concerned with a single variable of interest
Correlational Methods
Examine associations between two or more variables
Experimental Methods
Examine cause-and-effect relationships between two or more variables
Descriptive Methods
Involve the systematic observation and classification of behaviour
Descriptive Methods
Includes surveys, focus groups, case studies, observational research
Naturalistic Observation
Passive observation. Observers do not change or alter ongoing behaviour
Participant Observation
Active observation. The researcher is actively involved in the situation.
Laboratory Observation
Systematic observations are made within a laboratory setting (rather than in the ‘real world’).
Surveys
Allow us to gather large amounts of information quickly and easily
Focus Groups
Provide rich, detailed information that may be lacking from a survey
Case Studies
Provide important insights and stimulate further research to test specific hypotheses
Reactivity/the Hawthorne effect
Demand characteristics
Correlational Methods
Allow researchers to make claims about associations between variables, but not causal claims
Correlational Methods
Single group of participants, at least two measures (variables of interest)
Positive Relationship
Variables move in same direction
Negative Relationship
Variables move in inverse direction
directionality problem, third-variable problem
Correlational studies do not tell us whether one variable causes changes in another variable because of _____
Correlational Studies
important component of psychological research as they allow us to examine hypotheses about the relationships between variables
Independent Variable
Variable that is manipulated
Experiments
Tightly controlled (usually take place in laboratory) and participants are randomly assigned to study conditions
Confound
Anything that may unintentionally vary along with the independent variable
Confound
Limit our ability to make causal claims
Random Assignment
Each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any condition in the study
Random Sample
Each member of the population you are interested in has an equal chance of being chosen to participate
Random Assignment
ensures the groups are equivalent, on average, on those variables you might be concerned with, as well as those variables you haven’t even thought of
Double-Blind Experiment
Both the participants and the experimenters who interact with them are unaware of which condition the participant is in
Population
The group that you want to be able to generalize your findings to
Sample
The group of individuals from this population who are part of your study
Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich and Democratic
Psychology’s WEIRD Problem
Quasi-Experiment
Experimental design where random assignment is not possible
Quasi-Experiment
can be very useful for studying variables where random assignment isn’t feasible or ethical
Field Experiment
Experiments that occur in real-world settings rather than the laboratory
Field Experiment
Random assignment is possible, however researchers have less control over the study
Field Experiment
Participants are often unaware of the study
Construct Validity
Operationalizations
External Validity
Generalizability
Internal Validity
Causality
Construct Validity
How valid are the measures used in the study, how accurately have the variables been operationalized?
External Validity
How well would we expect the results of the study to generalize to people and contexts beside those in the study itself
Internal Validity
How well has the study established a cause-and-effect relationship between variables (i.e., are there confounds in the experiment?)
Descriptive Statistics
Organize data into meaningful patterns and summaries
Inferential Statistics
Allow us to extend conclusions from a sample to a population
Reproducibility
A study can be duplicated in method and/or analysis
Replicability
a study about a phenomenon produces similar results from a previous study of the same phenomenon
Twin Studies, Adoption Studies
Helps researchers study the impact of genetic vs environmental influences
Epigenetics
changes in gene expression that are due to non-genetic influences
Nature, nurture
_____ and _____ are inextricably entwined
Nature, nurture
Work together to determine human behaviour
Heredity
the genetic transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring
Heritability
an estimate of the genetic proportion of the variation in some specific trait (within a particular population)
Estimate of Heritability
% of the variation that is explained by genetic differences
The Nervous System
The body’s electrochemical communication circuitry
Central Nervous System
Composed of brain and spinal cord
Neuron
Basic unit of the nervous system
Neuron
Operate through electrical impulses
Sensory Neurons
Afferent neurons
Motor Neurons
Efferent neurons
Action Potential
The neural impulse that passes along the axon and subsequently causes the release of chemicals from the terminal buttons
Resting Potential
Polarized state, more negative inside the cell
Resting Potential
-70mV inside cell
Inhibitory Signals
Decrease the likelihood that the neuron will fire
Excitatory Signals
increase the likelihood that the neuron will fire
Threshold
-55mV
All-or-None Principle
a neuron fires with the same magnitude each time - it either fires or does not fire
frequently
How ______ the neuron fires can vary
Neurotransmitters
Chemical substances that carry signals from one neuron to another
Vesicles
Neurotransmitters are stored in ______ inside the terminal buttons
Presynaptic Membrane
membrane of the neuron that is sending the signal
Postsynaptic Membrane
membrane of the neuron that is receiving the signal
Glutamate
primary excitatory neurotransmitter
GABA
primary inhibitory neurotransmitter
Serotonin
mood, impulsiveness, hunger, sleep
Dopamine
Reward and motivation, voluntary movement
Acetylcholine
Movement, memory, cognition, sleep
Epinephrine, norepinephrine
stress response (fight or flight)
Agonist
binds to receptors and produces a response that mimics the effects of an endogenous neurotransmitter
Antagonist
inhibits the action of an endogenous neurotransmitter by blocking, destroying, or mimicking neurotransmitters
Plastic
the brain is _____, able to be changed, reorganized, as a result of experience, drugs, or injury
Brainstem
Controls life sustaining functions of autonomic nervous system, including breathing, digestion, heartbeat, etc.
Reticular Formation
alertness, sleep
Cerebellum
Essential for coordinated movement and balance
Diencephalon
Composed of thalamus, hypothalamus, cerebellum
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