Psy100 Midterm

Wilhelm Wundt

given the honour of formally founding experimental psychology

Edward Titchener

Founder of structuralism

William James

Founder of functionalism

John Watson, B.F. Skinner

Founders of Behaviouralism

Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow

Founders of humanism

Ongoing

the scientific method is an ______ process

Explanatory, predictive

A scientific theory is _____ and ______

Testable, falsifiable, parsimonious

Scientific theories (and the hypotheses they generate) must also be:

Parsimonious

preference for simplicity

Falsifiable

possible in principle to make an observation that would show the proposition to be false, even if that observation has not been made

Intergroup Contact Theory

under certain circumstances, positive inter group contact can reduce prejudice toward the out group

Social Comparison Theory

people will evaluate their own abilities by comparing themselves to similar others, especially when more objective measures are unavailable

Social Learning Theory

People can learning by observing others, in the absence of explicit behavioural reproduction or reinforcement

Variable

A characteristic or condition that changes or has different values for different individuals

Dependent Variable

Variable that is measured

Conceptual Definition

Textbook definition, the meaning of the term

Operational Definition

Definition of theoretical construct that is stated in terms of concrete, observable (measurable) procedures

Constructs

Internal attributes or characteristics that cannot be directly observed but are useful for describing and explaining behaviour

Descriptive Methods

Often concerned with a single variable of interest

Correlational Methods

Examine associations between two or more variables

Experimental Methods

Examine cause-and-effect relationships between two or more variables

Descriptive Methods

Involve the systematic observation and classification of behaviour

Descriptive Methods

Includes surveys, focus groups, case studies, observational research

Naturalistic Observation

Passive observation. Observers do not change or alter ongoing behaviour

Participant Observation

Active observation. The researcher is actively involved in the situation.

Laboratory Observation

Systematic observations are made within a laboratory setting (rather than in the ‘real world’).

Surveys

Allow us to gather large amounts of information quickly and easily

Focus Groups

Provide rich, detailed information that may be lacking from a survey

Case Studies

Provide important insights and stimulate further research to test specific hypotheses

Reactivity/the Hawthorne effect

Demand characteristics

Correlational Methods

Allow researchers to make claims about associations between variables, but not causal claims

Correlational Methods

Single group of participants, at least two measures (variables of interest)

Positive Relationship

Variables move in same direction

Negative Relationship

Variables move in inverse direction

directionality problem, third-variable problem

Correlational studies do not tell us whether one variable causes changes in another variable because of _____

Correlational Studies

important component of psychological research as they allow us to examine hypotheses about the relationships between variables

Independent Variable

Variable that is manipulated

Experiments

Tightly controlled (usually take place in laboratory) and participants are randomly assigned to study conditions

Confound

Anything that may unintentionally vary along with the independent variable

Confound

Limit our ability to make causal claims

Random Assignment

Each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any condition in the study

Random Sample

Each member of the population you are interested in has an equal chance of being chosen to participate

Random Assignment

ensures the groups are equivalent, on average, on those variables you might be concerned with, as well as those variables you haven’t even thought of

Double-Blind Experiment

Both the participants and the experimenters who interact with them are unaware of which condition the participant is in

Population

The group that you want to be able to generalize your findings to

Sample

The group of individuals from this population who are part of your study

Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich and Democratic

Psychology’s WEIRD Problem

Quasi-Experiment

Experimental design where random assignment is not possible

Quasi-Experiment

can be very useful for studying variables where random assignment isn’t feasible or ethical

Field Experiment

Experiments that occur in real-world settings rather than the laboratory

Field Experiment

Random assignment is possible, however researchers have less control over the study

Field Experiment

Participants are often unaware of the study

Construct Validity

Operationalizations

External Validity

Generalizability

Internal Validity

Causality

Construct Validity

How valid are the measures used in the study, how accurately have the variables been operationalized?

External Validity

How well would we expect the results of the study to generalize to people and contexts beside those in the study itself

Internal Validity

How well has the study established a cause-and-effect relationship between variables (i.e., are there confounds in the experiment?)

Descriptive Statistics

Organize data into meaningful patterns and summaries

Inferential Statistics

Allow us to extend conclusions from a sample to a population

Reproducibility

A study can be duplicated in method and/or analysis

Replicability

a study about a phenomenon produces similar results from a previous study of the same phenomenon

Twin Studies, Adoption Studies

Helps researchers study the impact of genetic vs environmental influences

Epigenetics

changes in gene expression that are due to non-genetic influences

Nature, nurture

_____ and _____ are inextricably entwined

Nature, nurture

Work together to determine human behaviour

Heredity

the genetic transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring

Heritability

an estimate of the genetic proportion of the variation in some specific trait (within a particular population)

Estimate of Heritability

% of the variation that is explained by genetic differences

The Nervous System

The body’s electrochemical communication circuitry

Central Nervous System

Composed of brain and spinal cord

Neuron

Basic unit of the nervous system

Neuron

Operate through electrical impulses

Sensory Neurons

Afferent neurons

Motor Neurons

Efferent neurons

Action Potential

The neural impulse that passes along the axon and subsequently causes the release of chemicals from the terminal buttons

Resting Potential

Polarized state, more negative inside the cell

Resting Potential

-70mV inside cell

Inhibitory Signals

Decrease the likelihood that the neuron will fire

Excitatory Signals

increase the likelihood that the neuron will fire

Threshold

-55mV

All-or-None Principle

a neuron fires with the same magnitude each time - it either fires or does not fire

frequently

How ______ the neuron fires can vary

Neurotransmitters

Chemical substances that carry signals from one neuron to another

Vesicles

Neurotransmitters are stored in ______ inside the terminal buttons

Presynaptic Membrane

membrane of the neuron that is sending the signal

Postsynaptic Membrane

membrane of the neuron that is receiving the signal

Glutamate

primary excitatory neurotransmitter

GABA

primary inhibitory neurotransmitter

Serotonin

mood, impulsiveness, hunger, sleep

Dopamine

Reward and motivation, voluntary movement

Acetylcholine

Movement, memory, cognition, sleep

Epinephrine, norepinephrine

stress response (fight or flight)

Agonist

binds to receptors and produces a response that mimics the effects of an endogenous neurotransmitter

Antagonist

inhibits the action of an endogenous neurotransmitter by blocking, destroying, or mimicking neurotransmitters

Plastic

the brain is _____, able to be changed, reorganized, as a result of experience, drugs, or injury

Brainstem

Controls life sustaining functions of autonomic nervous system, including breathing, digestion, heartbeat, etc.

Reticular Formation

alertness, sleep

Cerebellum

Essential for coordinated movement and balance

Diencephalon

Composed of thalamus, hypothalamus, cerebellum