Key Concepts in U.S. Government and Politics: Court Cases, Amendments, and Federalism

Block grants

Federal money given to the states with few restrictions about how it should be spent

Incumbent

An officeholder who is running for reelection

Amicus curiae

An argument filed with a court by an individual or group who is not a party to a lawsuit

Incorporation

The process by which the Bill of Rights has been applied to the states on a case-by-case basis through the Fourteenth Amendment

Expressed powers

Powers that are given to an institution of government directly in the Constitution, such as Congress's power to tax

Inherent powers

Powers that are naturally derived from the duties of a specific government position, such as Thomas Jefferson's power as president to purchase the Louisiana Territory

Pluralism

A theory of government in which many groups compete for policy

Political action committee (PAC)

An organization that is registered with the Federal Election Committee and donates money to a candidate or campaign

Gerrymandering

Drawing congressional district boundaries to benefit a group, usually a political party

Closed primary

A vote by party members to determine their party's candidate for office, which is restricted to those who are registered to the party

Judicial review

The power of the Supreme Court to overturn a law or executive action as unconstitutional

Iron triangle

A relationship between interest groups, agencies, and congressional committees in a certain policy area

Executive order

A presidential directive

Political socialization

The process by which an individual develops his or her political beliefs

Lobbying

Efforts by an interest group or individual to contact a member of Congress and advocate for a particular policy

Bully pulpit

An excellent platform or political office from which to advocate a point of view or agenda; i.e., the presidency

Lame-duck period

The time during which a president who has lost an election or has ended a second term is still in office before the new president serves

27 amendment

Congressional pay increase delayed until next regular session of Congress

17th Amendment

Changed Senatorial election from state appointment to state popular election

7th Amendment

Right of trial by jury in civil cases

21st Amendment

Repealed the amendment that outlawed intoxicating liquors

Schenck v. United States (1919)

This case established that speech creating a 'clear and present danger' is not protected by the First Amendment

Proportional representation

The idea that Congressional representation should be based on population

Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972)

This case ruled compelling Amish students to attend school past the eighth grade violates the free exercise clause.

Shaw v. Reno (1993)

Majority-minority districts, created under the Voting Rights Act of 1965, may be constitutionally challenged by voters if race is the only factor used in creating the congressional district.

Great Compromise / Connecticut Compromise

Merged other proposals to create representation in Congress based on statehood, with each state receiving two representatives, and established a bicameral legislative branch.

Tinker v. Des Moines (1969)

This case established the right of public school students to wear black armbands at school to protest the Vietnam War

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)

This case guaranteed the right to an attorney for the poor or indigent in a state felony case.

Letter from Birmingham Jail

This document discusses the difference between just and unjust laws, aligning itself with religious and historic traditions, and illustrates the role of social movements to obtain justice for all.

Fed 70

Singular executive, capable of swift action, in the form of an accountable president will check the power of the legislative branch.

United States v. Lopez (1995)

This case ruled that Congress may not use the commerce clause to make possession of a gun in a school zone a federal crime.

Independent expenditures

Money spent on ads that are not sponsored by a candidate or party.

Dealignment

When voters no longer identify with one of the two major parties and become independent voters.

Gender gap

The tendency of men to support candidates from the Republican party at greater rates than women.

Caucus

Face-to-face meetings of party members at the local or state level to determine their party's candidate for office.

Interest group

An organization that advocates for policies through lobbying, electioneering, grassroots mobilization, and protesting.

Public policy agenda

Problems that have the attention of the government and the public.

Logrolling

When members of Congress trade votes for favors in order to get the bills they support passed.

Franking privilege

The free mail and electronic signature system used by members of Congress.

Necessary and Proper Clause

Article 1, Section 8, Clause 3, grants Congress powers beyond just business activities; it supports the idea of implied powers, and has shaped the balance of power between the federal and state governments.

14th Amendment

Promotes equal protection of law, due process, and defines citizenship.

Article V

Outlines the Constitutional Amendment Process.

15th Amendment

Universal male suffrage.

16th Amendment

Congress given the power to levy an income tax.

Article I of the Constitution

Creates the Legislative Branch.

11th Amendment

States cannot be sued in federal court by a resident from another state or foreign country.

Articles of Confederation

Its areas of weaknesses and key flaws were: Taxation, Trade, Interstate Commerce, United Military, No Judicial Branch, Weak Executive and Amendment Process.

Federalist No. 10

this document argued that the large representative republic is the best safeguard against the illls of fraction and insurrection

Citizens United v. FEC (2010)

This case established that political spending by corporations, associations, and labor unions is a form of protected speech under the First Amendment.

New York Times Co. v. United States (1971)

This case bolstered the freedom of the press, establishing a 'heavy presumption against prior restraint' even in cases involving national security.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

This case established supremacy of the U.S. Constitution and federal laws over state laws.

Federalist No. 78

This document argued that an independent Judiciary with the power to determine the constitutionality of the acts of Congress is a bulwark against congressional abuse.

1st Amendment

Freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition.

Open primary

An election to determine a party's candidate for office in which that party's members and unaffiliated voters may vote.

2nd Amendment

A well-regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.

22nd Amendment

President limited to two terms of office.

Super PAC

An organization, which need not disclose its members, that can spend a vast and unlimited amount of money on a political campaign.

Pocket veto

When a president does not sign a bill within 10 days when Congress is not in session.

Monetary policy

The Fed's attempt to influence the economy through federal interest rates, reserve rates, and the amount of money in circulation.

Devolution

Process by which the national government gives more power and authority to the states.

Categorical grants

Money given by the federal government to the states to be used for a narrowly defined purpose.

Casework

When congressional staff help a constituent solve a problem.

Entitlements

Promises made by the government to an identifiable group of people who are guaranteed benefits.

Political efficacy

An individual's belief that his or her political participation can make a difference.

White House staff

The president's personal assistants and advisors.

Oversight

Congressional committee hearings held to determine how well an agency is doing its job.

Originalism

Making judicial decisions by considering what the founding fathers meant in the Constitution.

General election

An election to select the person who will hold office.

10th Amendment

Powers reserved to the states.

19th Amendment

Eliminated voting discrimination based on sex.

26th Amendment

Set the voting age at eighteen.

Interstate relations provisions

Full Faith and Credit among States, citizen Privilege and Immunities, extradition, Statehood.

Equal representation in the Senate

The principle that representation in Congress should be based on statehood, with each state receiving two representatives.

Cooperative federalism

A system in which national, state, and local governments interact cooperatively and collectively to solve common problems, rather than making policies separately.

Critical elections

Elections that signal a significant shift in the political landscape, often resulting in a new party alignment or major policy changes.

Demographics

Statistical data relating to the population and particular groups within it, such as age, race, gender, and income.

Divided government

When one party controls the presidency while another controls one or both houses of Congress.

Filibuster

A tactic used in the Senate to delay or prevent a vote on a bill by extending debate.

Fiscal federalism

The use of spending by the national government through the grant process to influence state policies

Fiscal policy

Government policy regarding taxation and spending to influence the economy.

Horse race journalism

Media coverage that focuses on who is ahead in the polls rather than substantive issues.

Implied powers

Powers of the federal government that go beyond those enumerated in the Constitution, based on the Necessary and Proper Clause.

Issue network (iron triangle)

A network of individuals and groups, including interest groups, congressional committees, and bureaucratic agencies, that influence policy in a particular issue area.

Judicial activism

Judicial rulings suspected of being based on personal or political considerations rather than existing law; sometimes used to describe a court actively shaping policy.

Litigation

The process of taking legal action or filing lawsuits to achieve policy goals.

Mandatory spending

Federal spending required by law for programs such as Social Security, Medicare, and interest on the national debt.

Midterm election

An election held halfway through a president's term, in which members of Congress, and sometimes state and local officials, are elected.

Motion for cloture

A vote by 60 senators to end a filibuster

Original intent

Judicial philosophy that interprets the Constitution according to the perceived intent of the framers.

Party polarization

The growing ideological gap and lack of compromise between the major political parties.

Pork barrel spending

a provision in a bill that benefits a specific congressional constituency

Realignment

A significant and lasting shift in the political party support or voter coalitions.

Redistricting

changing congressional districtsbounderires based on a new census

Selective incorporation

The process by which the Supreme Court applies protections in the Bill of Rights to the states using the Fourteenth Amendment.

Single-member districts

The electoral system used to select members of the house of representatives

Stare decisis

The principle that courts should follow precedent in making judicial decisions.

Suffrage

The right to vote

Uncontrollable spending

Federal expenditures required by law, often mandatory spending programs, that cannot easily be changed.

Unfunded mandate

A requirement imposed by the federal government on state or local governments without providing funding to cover the costs.

Writ of certiorari

A document issed by the supreme court if it has agreed to hear a case