Demographics and Social Structure

What is the Teacher Expectancy Effect?

“Expectations elevate—or eliminate.” What a teacher believes can either boost or block a student’s growth.

What is the Fundamental Attribution Error in psychology?

The Fundamental Attribution Error is the tendency to overemphasize internal, stable traits (like personality) and underemphasize situational factors when explaining someone else’s behavior.

“He acts that way, so he must be that way.” We forget the situation—because traits are easier to label.

What is Social Desirability Bias in psychology?

“Say what’s safe—not what’s true.” When fitting in matters more than being honest, responses shift.

What is selection bias?

Selection Bias occurs when the sample of participants chosen for a study isn’t properly randomized, making the results unrepresentative or skewed.

What’s the difference between primary and secondary group ties in sociology?

Primary groups shape identity and emotional bonds; secondary groups serve functional roles.

Primary Group Ties

• Small, intimate, and emotionally close relationships

• Found in family, close friends, support networks

• Involve personal, long-term interactions

Secondary Group Ties

• Larger, formal, and goal-oriented relationships

• Found in school, workplace, organizations

• More impersonal and task-focused

What does a judgment based on incorrect assumptions represent?

It represents bias—a tendency to make judgments or decisions based on flawed reasoning, inaccurate assumptions, or partial information.

What is Erikson’s first psychosocial stage, and when does it occur? (cradle confidence)

Trust vs. Mistrust

• Age range: Birth to ~18 months

Focus: Developing a sense of security and reliability in caregivers and the environment

“Cradle confidence.” Early nurture builds trust that lasts a lifetime.

What is Erikson’s “Competence vs. Inferiority” stage, and when does it occur?

• Age range: ~6 to 11 years (elementary school years)

• Core conflict: Balancing the desire to achieve with fear of failure

“Competence builds confidence.” Mastery in childhood lays the groundwork for self-esteem.

What psychosexual stage are infants in during the first year of life, according to Freud?

“First tastes of life.” Mouth meets the world—and development begins.

When does the phallic stage occur, and what does it focus on?

• Age range: ~3 to 6 years

• Focus: Awareness of genital differences, identity development, and early dynamics of attraction and rivalry

What is impression management in psychology and sociology?

Impression Management refers to an individual's conscious efforts to influence how others perceive them. It involves strategically presenting oneself through behavior, appearance, speech, or actions to create a desired image.

What is the Hawthorne Effect in research methodology?

The Hawthorne Effect refers to the phenomenon where participants in a study alter their behavior simply because they know they are being observed.