ATAR 11 Human Biology - Unit 1 EXAM revision

Golgi body

Modifies proteins and packages them in vesicles for secretion from the cell

Cell membrane

Determines which substances get into and out of the cell

Cytoplasm

The jellylike material that makes up much of a cell inside the cell membrane

Centrioles

Involved in the reproduction of the cell (mitosis)

Endoplasmic reticulum

Provides a surface on which chemical reactions can occur
Made of lipid molecules and associated proteins

Ribosomes

The cell structures that make proteins
Amino acids are joined at the ____ to make proteins

Cytoskeleton

Gives the cell it's shape because of microfilaments and microtubules in it that assists with movement of materials, organelle or the whole cell

Lysosomes

Small spheres that contain enzymes that break down proteins, lipids, nucleic acid and some carbohydrates
Breaks down materials taken into the cell or breaks down worn out organelles

Nucleus

Is the "brain" of the cell
- Contains genetic material
- Controls the cell

Mitochondria

Releases energy for the cell through respiration
Called the 'powerhouse of the cell'

Differentially permeable

Certain ions and molecules can pass through the cell membrane

Active process

Process that requires the cell's energy

Passive process

Cell's energy from respiration doesn't have to be used

Diffusion

A passive process resulting from the random movement of ions and molecules

Osmosis

A passive, special case of diffusion where water crosses across the membrane

Carrier-mediated transport

A process that requires special proteins in the cell membrane
May be passive or active depending on nature of mechanism

Vesicular transport

A process in which materials are moved in membrane bound sacs
Is an active process

Endocytosis

Taking liquids or solids into cell by vesicular transport

Exocytosis

When contents of a vesicle are passed to the outside

Tissues

The second structural level
Groups of muscles cells make up muscle, groups of nerve cells make up nerves and groups of organ cells make up organs

Organs

The third structural level
Different tissues work together to form organs
Made up of two or more tissues

System

Highest structural level
A group of organs that work together for a common purpose

Epithelial tissue

A covering or lining tissue
- Organs like the kidneys, heart, intestines and lungs are lines with epithelium
- Also lines inside of organs

Connective tissue

Provides support for the body and helps to hold all body parts together
The cells are not close together
- Separated from each other by large amounts of material that is not made of cells called matrix

Muscular tissue

Log and thin, often called muscle fibres
Able to respond to a stimulus by becoming shorter
Three types
- Skeletal muscle
- Involuntary muscle
- Cardiac muscle

Nervous tissue

Made up of nuerons
- Found in the brain, spinal cord and the nerves

Organic compounds

Large molecules that always contain the element carbon

Inorganic compounds

Inorganic minerals don't contain carbon or if they do they have small molecules

Metabolism

All of the chemical reactions that take place in cells and the system of which the cells are a part

Catabolism

When large molecules are broken down into smaller ones

Anabolism

When small molecules are built up to larger ones

Cellular respiration

The process by which organic molecules are broken down to provide and release energy for the cell's activity

Adenosine triphosphate

The remaining energy from cellular respiration is used to form a compound called _________ ___________
- ATP is formed when an inorganic phosphate group is joined to a molecule of adenosine diphosphate

Aerobic respiration

Respiration requiring oxygen
The pyruvic acid produced from glycosides is completed broken down to carbon dioxide and water
Occurs in the mitochondria of the cell

Anaerobic respiration

The production of lactic acid from glucose
Meaning respiration without oxygen

Muscle pain

Caused by the lactic acid produced for anaerobic respiration

Enzymes

Proteins that allow chemical reactions to take place at a normal body temperature
Without them, reactions would be too slow for body

Activation energy

Energy needed to get chemical reaction started
Enzymes reduce the activation energy needed to begin a reaction
- Thus, when reactions occur they can at body temperature

Substrate

Molecules on which an enzyme acts
Each enzyme will only combine with one particular substrate
- Due to their complementary characteristics to each other

Water

The fluid in which other molecules are dissolved

Carbohydrates

The main source of energy for cells
Complex carbs --> simple sugars --> broken down in cellular respiration to release energy

Lipids

Broken down to fatty acids and glycerol

Proteins

Broken down into amino acids
- Most important proteins are enzymes

Minerals

Important for metabolism
May be part of enzymes, may function as co-factors or may be part of substrates like ATP

Vitamins

Act as co-enzymes for many of the chemical reactions of metabolism

The respiratory system

The system that ensures the body has a constant supply of oxygen and that carbon dioxide is continually removed from cells

Pharynx

Air from nasal cavity passes through here

Nasal cavity

Contains projections that increase the internal surface area
- Filters, warms and moistens air before it enters the lungs
- Contains small sensor, acts as resonating chamber for speech sounds

Epiglottis

Little flap of tissue that closes off trachea so food and liquids cannot enter lungs, preventing choking

Bronchi

Two primary bronchi branch from the trachea: then divides into secondary and tertiary bronchi

Bronchioles

Very fine tubes with walls of smooth muscle
- Finest end in group sacs: alveoli

Alveoli

Tiny air sacs that make up most of the lung
- Well supplied with blood capillaries for the exchange of oxygen and CO2

Diaphragm

Separates chest from abdomen, contracts and flattens downwards thereby increasing the volume of chest cavity, and lungs, when breathing in

The lungs

Covered by a pleural membrane that also lines the inside of the chest
- Pleural fluid between the two layers holds the lungs against the inside of the chest

Intercostal muscle

Muscles between the ribs
- Moves ribcage upwards and outwards to increase volume of the chest and thus the lungs

Ribs

Forms the framework for the chest

Trachea

Carries air to and from lungs
Lined with mucous membrane and cells with cilia
- Cilia beats to move mucus and trapped particles upwards

Larynx

The organ of voice
Air passes through the _______, going to and from lungs
- Contains vocal chords which vibrate to make sounds

Inspiration

Taking air into the lungs
- Pressure of lungs must be LESS than atmospheric pressure
- Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract

Inspired air

Has higher levels of oxygen compared to expired air

Expired air

Has higher levels of carbon dioxide compared to inspired air

Concentration gradient

A difference in gas concentration between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the capillaries
Maintained by:
- Constant flow of blood in capillaries
- Air flow in and out of alveoli

Asthma

An allergic reaction to foreign substances that enter the body

Emphysema

A disease usually caused by long-term exposure to irritating particles in the air

Lung cancer

Involves development of tumor - mass of cells that divide in uncontrolled way

Blood

Made up of a liquid called plasma and cells or cell fragments are known as the forced elements

Leucocytes (white blood cells)

Larger but in fewer number than erythrocytes
Different types include:
- Granulocytes
- Monocytes and lympocytes

Erythrocytes (red blood cells)

Biconcave disks with no nucleus
- Allows for more room for haemoglobin
- Produced in bone marrow and destroyed in liver and spleen

Thromocytes (platelets)

Small cell fragments with no nucleus
Formed in the red bone marrow and last for about 7 days
- Important for normal blood clotting

Plasma

Makes up 55% of blood volume
91% is water with the rest made up of dissolved substances:
- Nutrients
- Ions
- Gases
- Hormones, plasma, proteins and waste

Haemoglobin

A substance that can combine with oxygen that turns red giving the blood it's red colour

Transport of carbon dioxide

8% dissolved in plasma
22% combines with oxygen to create oxyhaemoglobin
70% is carried in the plasma as bicarbonate ions

Arteries

Carry blood away from the heart
- Have a blood pressure that increases as the ventricles contract and decreases as the ventricles relax
- Have thick, muscular, elastic walls
- Have no valves

Veins

Carry blood towards the heart
- Have a constant, relatively low blood pressure
- Have thin, inelastic walls with little muscle
- Often have valves

Capillaries

Tiny vessels that carry blood between the cells
- Important because they're microscopic blood vessels that form a network, carrying blood close to nearly every cell in the body

Pulmonary arteries

The only arteries that carry deoxygenated blood to the heart

Pulmonary veins

Brings oxygenated blood to the heart

Systole

1st phase of blood pumping in heart - Pumping phase of the cardiac cycle when the heart contracts

Diastole

2nd phase of blood pumping in heart - Filling phase of the cardiac cycle as the heart muscle relaxes
- Atria fills with blood and the ventricles also receive blood as the valves between them open

Atrial systole

3rd phase of blood pumping in heart - The contraction of the atria that then follows and forces the remaining blood into the ventricles

Ventricular systole

4th phase of blood pumping in heart - The atria now relax and refill while the ventricles contract in ________ ______

Platelets

Small cell fragments with no nucleus - about 1/3 the size of an erythrocyte
- Produced in the red bone marrow, important for normal blood clotting

Blood clotting

Needed for more serious injuries
- Results in the formation of threads of an insoluble protein called fibrin
- Fibrin threads mesh to help red blood cells, platelets and plasma
- After formation of clot, clot retraction occurs
Then fluid called serum squeezes out then dries causing a scab

Phagocytosis

A process by which certain living cells called phagocytes ingest or ingulf other cells of parasites

Macrophages

Large phagocytic cells that destroy bakers caught in the meshwork of fibres as the lymph flows through the spaces in the nodes
- Ingests particles by phagocytosis

The lymphatic system

Main function is to collect some of the fluid that escapes from the blood capillaries and return it to the circulatory system

Lymph vessels

Originate as blind-ended tubes in the spaces between the cells of most tissue
- Slightly larger than blood capillaries

Lymph nodes

Occur interlude along the lymphatic vessel
- Are most numerous in neck, armpits, groin and around the alimentary canal
- Bean shaped and surrounded by capsule of connect tissue that contains masses of lymphoid tissue

Antigen

A substance that is capable of stimulating the formation of a specific protein called an antibody

Antibody

Produced in response to an antigen and are able to combine with the antigen that initiated the response

Whole blood

Has a chemical added to prevent clotting
- Transferred mainly in severe blood loss

Red blood cell concentrates

The most widely used component of blood
- Made of configuring whole blood to seperate cells from plasma

Platelet concentrates

Given to patients with abnormal platelets or a reduced number of platelets

Immoglobins

A group of proteins that act as antibodies
- Extracted from plasma of suitable donors

Ventilation

Air moving in and out of the lungs from higher pressure to lower pressure

Pneumonia

Infection of the lungs caused by bacteria, fungi, viruses or other organisms

Tuberculosis

Infection, usually of the lungs, caused by the bacteria mycobacterium tuberculosis

The alimentary canal

The continuous tube that runs from the mouth to the anus
- The surface is through which nutrients are absorbed

Digestion

The process in which carbohydrates, proteins and fat molecules are broken down

Incisors

For biting and chewing