(Unit 4) AP Environmental Science

Convergent boundaries can result in the creation of _______

mountains, island arcs, earthquakes, and volcanoes. plates move away from each other which leads to subduction

Divergent boundaries can result in ______

seafloor spreading, rift valleys, volcanoes, and earthquakes. plates move away from each other, rising magma plumes from the mantle forces plates apart

Transform boundaries can result in ______

earthquakes since the plates slide past each other in opposite directions

Maps that show the global distribution of plate boundaries can be used _____

to determine the location of volcanoes, island arcs, earthquakes, hot spots, and faults

An earthquake occurs when ______

stress overcomes a locked fault, releasing stored energy

What is earth's core?

a dense mass of solid nickel, iron and radioactive elements that release massive amounts of heat

What is earth's mantle?

a liquid layer of magma surrounding core, kept liquified by intense heat from the core

What is earth's asthenosphere?

a solid, flexible outer layer of the mantle, beneath the lithosphere

What is earth's lithosphere?

a thin, brittle layer of rock floating on top of the mantle which is broken up into tectonic plates

What is earth's crust?

a very outer layer of the lithosphere, the surface of earth

What is subduction?

one plate being forced beneath another, forms mountains, islands arcs, earthquakes, and volcanoes

Magma heated by the earth´s core rises __________

towards the lithosphere

Rising magma cools and expands which ______

forced oceanic plates apart, creates mid ocean ridges, volcanoes, spreading zones or ¨seafloor spreading¨

What happens when magma cools?

it solidifies into new lithosphere

Spreading magma forces ________

oceanic plate into the subduction zone, sinking oceanic plates melt back into magma, also forces magma up which creates narrow and coastal mountains and volcanoes on land

Oceanic-Oceanic

one plate subducts underneath other, forces magma up to lithosphere surface, forming mid ocean volcanoes, off-shore trenches and island arcs

Oceanic-Continental

dense oceanic plate subducts beneath continental plate and melts back into magma, forces magma up to lithosphere surface, creates coastal mountains like the Andes, volcanoes on land and tsunamis

Continental-Continental

one plate subducts underneath other, forcing surface crust upwards, making mountains like the Himalayas

Transform Fault Boundary

plates sliding past each other in opposite directions creates a fault, a fracture in rock surface

Earthquakes are the most common activity of _____

a transform fault boundary

Transform fault boundaries occur when ____

rough edges of plates get stuck on each other, pressure builds as plates keep sliding, but edges stay stuck and when stress overcomes the locked fault, plates suddenly release, slide past each other and release energy that shakes the lithosphere

Ring of Fire

pattern of volcanoes all around pacific plate, offshore island arcs like Japan

Transform faults

likely location of earthquakes

Hotspots

areas of especially hot magma rising up to lithosphere, mid-ocean islands like iceland and Hawaii

Soils are formed when parent material is _____

weathered, transported, and deposited

Protecting soils can protect _____

water quality as soils effectively filter and clean water that moves through them

Anchors roots of plants provides ______

water, shelter, and nutrients for growth

What specific nutrients do anchor roots of plants provide?

nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and megnesium

What does water do for plants?

filters rainwater and runoff by trapping pollutants in pore spaces and plant roots, clean water enters groundwater and aquifers

Nutrient Recycling

home to decomposers that break down dead organic matter + return nutrients to the soil

What is humus?

main organic part of soil, broken down biomass like leaves, dead animals, waste, etc

Physical elements of weathering?

wind, rain, freezing/thawing of ice

Biological elements of weathering?

roots of trees crack rocks

Chemical elements of weathering?

acid rain, acids from moss/lichen

Weathering of rocks equals what?

soil formation, being broken into smaller and smaller pieces then carried away and deposited by erosion

Weathering of parent material produces ______

smaller, and smaller fragments that make up geological/inorganic part of soil like sand, silt, clay and minerals

Breakdown of organic matter adds _____

humus to the soil

Parent material?

soil pH, nutrient content

Topography?

steep slope = too much erosion

more level ground = deposition

Warmer weather causes what type of erosion?

fast erosion

Precipitation causes what type of erosion?

increased weathering, erosion and deposition

O-Horizon

layer of organic matter like plant roots, dead leaves, and animal waste on top of soil which provides nutrients and limits H2O loss to evaporation

A-Horizon

topsoil, layer of humus and minerals from parent material

Which horizon has the most biological activity?

a-horizon since it breaks down organic matter to release nutrients

B-Horizon

subsoil, lighter layer below topsoil, mostly made of minerals with little to no organic matter, contains some nutrients

C-Horizon

least weathered soil that is closest to the parent material, sometimes called bedrock

In some soils and E horizon occurs where?

beneath either the O or A horizon

Loss of Topsoil?

tilling and loss of vegetation disturbs soil and makes it more easily eroded by wind and rain, loss of top soil dries out soil, removes nutrients + soil organisms that recycle nutrients

What is compaction?

compression of soil by machines, grazing livestock, and humans reduces ability to hold moisture, causes dry soil to erode more easily and supports less plant growth and root structure

Nutrient Depletion?

repeatedly growing crops on the same soil removes key nutrients over time, reduces ability to grow future crops

Water retention contributes to ______

land productivity and fertility of soils

Soil Texture

the % of sand, silt, and clay in a soil which always adds up to 100%

Sand is bigger which means it has ______

bigger pores, empty space between particles, water and air enters sandy soil easily

Clay has smaller particles which means _____

it’s harder for air + water to enter clay-heavy soils

More sand in a soil equals _____

more porous/higher porosity

More clay in a soil equals ____

less porous/less porosity

How do you use a Soil Texture Chart?

always start on bottom with sand %, move out to point where sand + clay meet, then go straight over to silt, make sure it adds up to 100%

More porous/higher porosity equals ______

more permeable/higher permeability

More porous/permeable equals ______

lower H₂O holding capacity

Soil that is too sandy ______

drains water too quickly for roots + dries out

Clay-heavy soil doesn’t let ______

H₂O drain to roots, or waterlogs which is suffocating them

Ideal soil for most plant growth is _____

loam, which balances porosity or drainage, with H₂O holding cap

Factors that increase soil nutrients include _______

organic matter, humus, decomposer activity, clay, and bases

Factors that decrease soil nutrients include ______

acids, excesssive rain and farming, and topsoil erosion

Factors that increase H₂O holding capacity include _____

aerated soil, Compost/humus/organic matter, clay content, root structure

Factors that decrease H₂O holding capacity include _____

compacted soil, topsoil erosion, sand, and root loss

Nitrogen makes up how much of earths atmospheres?

78%, unsuable to plants without being fixed

Argon makes up how much of earths atmospheres?

0.93%, an inert noble gas

Oxygen makes up how much of earths atmospheres?

21%, produced by photosynthesis

Water vapor makes up how much of earths atmospheres?

0-4%, varies by region and condition, quickly cycles through the atmosphere

CO2 makes up how much of earths atmospheres?

0.04%, leads to global warming, removed from the atmosphere by plant photosynthesis

Exosphere

outermost layer where atmosphere merges with space

Thermosphere

hottest tempature, absorbs harmful X-rays and UV radiation, charged gas molecules glow under intense solar radiation producing northern lights

Mesosphere

middle, 60-80 km, even less dense

Stratosphere

second, 16-60 km; less dense due to less pressure from layers above, thickest O₃ layer is found here; absorbs UV-B & UV-C rays which can mutate DNA of animals — cancer

Troposphere

weather occurs here, 0-16 km, most dense due to pressure of other layers above it, most of atmosphere’s gas molecules are found here, ozone in the troposphere is harmful to humans

Thermosphere tempature

tempature increases due to absorption of highly energetic solar radiation, hottest place on earth

Mesosphere tempature

tempature decreases because density decreases, leaving fewer molecules to absorb sun, coldest place on earth

Stratosphere tempature

tempature increases because top layer of stratosphere is warmed by UV rays

Troposphere tempature

tempature decreases as air gets further from warmth of earth’s surface

Global wind patterns primarily result from the ______

most intense solar radiation arriving at the equator, resulting in density differences and the Coriolos effect

Warm air _____

rises

Coriolos effect

the deflection of objects traveling through atmosphere due to the spin of earth

Warm air holds more ______

moisture than cold air

Rising air ____

expands and cools

Cool air can’t hold as much _____

H2O vapor

Air moves from ______

high to low pressure

Air at 30^o moves ______

back to left pressure of equator

Wind between 0-30^o moves from ______

east to west because earth is spinning west to east

Wind between 30^o-60^o moves ______

west to east because earth spins faster at 30^o than 60^o

0^o - 30 winds blow ______

east to west, drives ocean current clockwise in northern hemisphere, counterclockwise in southern hemispehre

30^o - 60^o: winds blow _______

west to east, drives weather patterns of north america

What is a watershed?

an area or ridge of land that separates waters flowing to different rivers, basins, or seas

More vegetation equals, for the watershed, ______

more infiltration and groundwater recharge

A greater slope equals, for the watershed, ______

faster velocity of runoff and more soil erosion

Soil permeability determines, for the watershed, _____

runoff vs. infiltration rates

Algae blooms due to increase of ______

nutrient pollution then decreased sunlight → plants below surface die → bacteria use up O₂ for decomposition → hypoxia (low O₂) & dead zones

Direct Effects of Clearcutting include _____

soil erosion, and increased soil and stream tempature

Solutions to Watershed Pollutants include _____

covering crops, riparian buffers, animal manure managment, septic tank upgrades, biological nutrient removal, and enhanced nutrient removal

Solar intensity of insolation depends on _____

the angle, how directly rays strike earth’s surface, the amount of atmosphere sun’s rays pass through