Colonial Society, Economy, and Trade in the New World

What titles were granted in the New World by 1750 and how many were conceded?

Dons, Fidalgos, and Hidalgos; fewer than 90 titles in Peru and only 27 in Mexico.

What does the concept 'limpieza de sangre' mean?

It refers to the concept of blood purity, based initially on religion.

Who comprised the urban middle groups in colonial society?

Manufacturers, master artisans, retail merchants, middle-ranking officials, military officers, lawyers, and priests.

What advantages did urban middle groups have in colonial society?

They enjoyed social status and wealth.

What was the situation of secular clerics and priests not belonging to religious orders?

By the end of the 16th century, they were in urban areas and received a small salary.

How were the middle rural groups in colonial Brazil characterized?

They consisted of significant numbers of small independent farmers, ranchers, and market gardeners.

Describe the situation of the broad base of colonial society.

The majority lived in poverty, material deprivation, and violence.

Were the urban poor in colonial Brazil in the same situation as those in Spanish America?

No, the free black and pardo population in Brazil faced different circumstances.

What was the estimated number of slaves imported from Africa to the New World?

Approximately 4.8 million slaves.

What main activities were imposed on slaves in the New World?

Plantation agriculture.

What laws were mandated for the rural poor living in the countryside?

Forced labor, free range labor, grazing rights, and rights to tierra baldidas (land without clear title).

How did the African slave trade change during the colonial era?

Population increased, mainly in Coastal Brazil and the Caribbean, due to loss of indigenous populations and the rise of plantation agriculture and gold mining.

What methods did colonial authorities use to control African slaves?

They employed punitive laws and violence.

What did the term 'Indian' imply during the colonial era?

It originally referred to race but became a cultural identity with political and economic implications.

What happened to the original languages during the colonial era?

Some languages survived despite conquest and disease, such as the Maya language, which remained primary in Yucatan until the end of the colonial period.

Where were the goldfields mainly discovered after the conquest?

In the Caribbean, Mexico, Central America, New Granada, central Chile, Peru, and Brazil.

Where were the silver mines located in the Viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru?

In Peru: Potosi; in New Spain: Zacatecas, Guanajuato, Sombrerete.

What was the patio process and what element was necessary for it?

The patio process required mercury, initially supplied from the royal mine at Almadén, Spain.

Where was a new source of mercury discovered in the Viceroyalty of Peru?

Huancavelica.

What was the wage custom for rural laborers and how did they survive?

Wage custom was two reales per day, with survival through small gardens or grazing animals.

What was the significance of sugar plantations in the colonial economy?

Sugar plantations were the most profitable export, allowing men with little capital to plant cane.

What were the four regional goods produced in the New World?

Bouillon, sugar, cacao, indigo, hides, and cochineal.

What two economic activities determined the cyclical behavior of the colonial market?

Mining and the sugar industry.

When and where did the House of Trade (Casa de la Contratación) start functioning?

Started in Seville, authorized sailings, supervised loading of ships, and was abolished in 1790.

What measures did Spain take to protect its Atlantic trade?

Created a fleet system for goods and limited commerce to three ports: Veracruz, Cartagena, and Nombre de Dios.

How did people gain additional profit from taxes on trade?

Through tax evasion, bribing officials, mislabeling crates, and shipping more goods than declared.

How was the slave trade managed for the Portuguese Crown?

It was hardly regulated and directed mostly by merchants with lax oversight.

How did the Spanish Crown manage taxes?

By imposing a variety of taxes to pay for administration, defense, and surplus, with significant burdens on the colonial population.

What did it mean to defend and protect the transatlantic trade?

It involved protecting treasure dispatched to Spain and military planning focused on naval protection.

What was the role of the Dutch West Indies Company in Brazil?

They attacked Brazil for its sugar production and established colonies.

Who was Henry Morgan and what was he known for?

A Welsh pirate known for his cruelty and attacks on towns, later knighted.

Why were bullion shipments vital for the Spanish Crown?

Due to the court's constant demand for bouillon.

What happened in the Viceroyalty of Peru after the introduction of the amalgamation process?

Silver production quintupled, leading to increased profits.

What goods were traded between Peru and New Spain?

Wheat, sugar, sheep, goats, cattle, wine, olive oil, cheese, almonds, honey, yerba, tea, and coca leaves.

What were the main obstacles for economic development during the colonial era?

Capital, technology, skill, a long period of economic decline, and inadequate monetary resources.

What major demographic changes occurred in the Americas after the arrival of the Spanish and Portuguese?

The indigenous population faced a demographic disaster due to conquest, while Iberian settlers increased through immigration and natural reproduction. The African slave trade introduced a third racial group, and intermixing created new ethnic identities.

What is the estimated range of the indigenous population in the Americas at the time of European arrival?

Estimates range from about 8 million to over 100 million, with a plausible total of 35 to 55 million.

What types of sources are used to estimate indigenous populations in the Americas?

Reliable sources include archaeological studies, European written records, early censuses, and church records of baptisms and burials.

What diseases significantly contributed to the decline of native populations in the Americas?

Epidemic diseases such as smallpox, measles, and bubonic plague led to high mortality rates among indigenous peoples.

What was the impact of smallpox on the Mexica population during the Spanish conquest?

Smallpox devastated Tenochtitlan, with reports indicating that over a quarter of the population died during the siege.

What epidemic diseases affected the Incas and when did they occur?

The first smallpox epidemic struck the Andes between 1524 and 1527, leading to significant mortality.

How did the Portuguese influence the indigenous population in Brazil during the smallpox outbreak?

Smallpox raged in Brazil from 1562 to 1565, killing approximately 30,000 Indians in Jesuit missions.

What was the Spanish policy of congregation or reduction in the Americas?

Spanish efforts aimed to concentrate surviving Indian populations into larger communities, often razing original settlements.

How did Viceroy Francisco de Toledo's administration impact the indigenous population in Peru?

Toledo imposed resettlement on about 1.5 million Indians, consolidating over 200 villages into only 39 towns.

What role did the Jesuits play in the resettlement of indigenous populations?

The Jesuits promoted moving pacified Indian populations to larger mission communities to facilitate Christian conversion.

What are yanaconas in the context of Inca labor systems?

Yanaconas were hereditary laborers exempt from traditional service, serving the state rather than specific communities.

What is the mita system and its significance in the Andean region?

The mita was a forced labor system requiring indigenous communities to provide labor for Spanish mines and agriculture.

Who were the forasteros and what was their status in colonial society?

Forasteros were Indians who migrated to other communities, losing hereditary rights but gaining exemptions from forced labor.

What factors contributed to the increase in Spanish population in the New World by 1600?

The population grew due to natural increase and immigration, with ties to family and economic opportunities driving emigration.

What were the main reasons for emigration from Spain to the New World?

Emigrants sought glory, fortune, and escape from economic problems in Spain, often motivated by family ties in prosperous regions.

What economic opportunities attracted Portuguese immigrants to Brazil?

Portuguese immigrants moved to Brazil to take advantage of the sugar and mining booms.

What were the main reasons for Portuguese emigration to Brazil?

To take advantage of the sugar and mining booms.

Why did the Portuguese import slaves from Africa during the sugar industry's expansion?

The demand for labor could not be met from free immigration or the small population of slaves in Iberia.

What was the average number of slaves imported to Brazil during the sugar industry's expansion?

About 5,600 slaves per year.

How many African captives had arrived in Brazil by 1810?

More than 2.5 million.

What was the status of 'natural children' in colonial society?

They were often regarded as illegitimate, with their prospects determined by the status of their European fathers.

What were the main population groups in colonial Brazil?

The population included Europeans, Indigenous peoples, and Africans, with mixed-race individuals such as mulattos and zambos emerging.

What is the term used for nonwhite individuals in the Spanish colonies?

Casta.

What was the encomienda system?

A system where conquistadors were granted the right to extract labor from Indigenous peoples as a reward for their conquests.

How many encomenderos were identified in New Spain from 1521 to 1555?

Only 506.

What was the mita system in Peru?

A labor system where Indigenous communities were forced to provide labor on a rotational basis for mines and agriculture.

What was the most infamous mita requirement in Peru?

To ensure over 13,000 Indian men worked in the mines of Potosi for one year out of seven.

What was the role of haciendas in colonial labor?

Large estate owners contracted directly with Indians and castas for labor, often paying slightly higher wages than repartimiento labor.

What was the condition of Indian slavery in the early colonial period?

Chattel slavery was the most repressive form, with thousands enslaved in the Caribbean and other regions.

What were the main activities for African slaves in the New World?

They worked in agriculture, mining, urban crafts, and as stevedores and street vendors.

How many African slaves were imported to Spanish America by 1820?

1.4 million.

What were the living conditions of slaves in Brazil?

They lived in poor conditions, often in small huts, suffered from a poor diet, and received minimal clothing.

What did the African slave trade provide to the New World?

Labor power for plantation economies and contributed to the genetic and cultural diversity of Latin America.

What was the period of the Maya empire before the arrival of the Spanish?

The Maya of Yucatan resisted Spanish domination for more than a decade, with effective political control imposed in 1545 and the last independent Maya group defeated in 1697.

What system of writing did the Mayans use?

The Mayans used hieroglyphics as their system of writing.

Name three important Mayan gods and their characteristics.

1. Itzamná - god of creation and the sky. 2. Kukulkan - feathered serpent god associated with wind and rain. 3. Chac - god of rain and agriculture.

In which regions did the Maya live before the conquest?

The Maya lived in present-day Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador.

Name five significant Mayan ruins.

1. Tikal 2. Chichen Itza 3. Palenque 4. Copán 5. Uxmal.

What were some peculiarities of Mayan culture regarding body modification?

The Mayans practiced cranial shaping and dental decoration, which were important for social status and beauty standards.

What was the main innovation of the Mayan numeric system?

The Mayan numeric system included the concept of zero and was based on a vigesimal (base-20) system.

What are the three main symbols in the Mayan numeric system?

1. Dot (1) 2. Bar (5) 3. Shell (0).

Name five products important in Mayan trade.

1. Cacao 2. Cotton 3. Jade 4. Obsidian 5. Spices.

How many days were in the Mayan calendar?

The Mayan calendar had 365 days in the Haab' and 260 days in the Tzolk'in.

What is the significance of December 21, 2012, in Mayan culture?

It marked the end of a 5,125-year cycle in the Mayan Long Count calendar.

What was used to play the pok-ta-pok game?

Players used a rubber ball to play pok-ta-pok, which was a ritual ball game with deep cultural significance.

How was Mayan society organized?

Mayan society was organized into city-states, each with its own ruler, and was not unified, making them resistant to conquest.

Who was the most important Mayan king in the history of Palenque?

Pakal the Great is considered the most important king of Palenque.

Name a codex about the Mayan culture and its location.

The Dresden Codex, located in Dresden, Germany, is one of the most significant Mayan codices.

What were the four regions of the Inca empire?

The four regions were: 1. Chinchaysuyu (Northwest) 2. Antisuyu (Northeast) 3. Collasuyu (Southeast) 4. Kuntisuyu (Southwest), with the capital in Cusco.

Which countries were included in the Inca empire and what was their language?

The Inca empire included parts of modern-day Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Chile, and Colombia, and the primary language was Quechua.

What is the most important Inca temple and to whom is it dedicated?

The Temple of the Sun (Coricancha) is the most important Inca temple, dedicated to Inti, the sun god.

What was the main activity of the chasquis?

Chasquis were messengers who carried messages and goods across the Inca empire using a relay system.

Why were terraces important in the Inca agricultural system?

Terraces were constructed to facilitate agricultural production and prevent soil erosion on steep hillsides.

What were quipus and how were they used?

Quipus were a system of knotted strings used by the Incas for record-keeping and communication, but they were not a form of writing.

Name three Inca gods and their meanings.

1. Inti - sun god. 2. Pachamama - earth goddess. 3. Viracocha - creator god.

When and how did the Europeans conquer the Inca empire?

The Inca empire was conquered in 1533 by Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro, who captured the Inca emperor Atahualpa.

What classification is used for studying the Indians of Brazil?

Indians of Brazil are classified into non-sedentary and semi-sedentary cultures, with approximately 2.4 million individuals.

When did the Jesuits arrive in Brazil and why?

The Jesuits arrived in Brazil in the 1540s to convert indigenous people to Christianity and protect them from exploitation.

What were some personal adornment features of Brazilian indigenous groups?

Brazilian indigenous groups used body paint, feathers, and jewelry, often in bright colors.

What was the first impression of Europeans encountering Brazilian indigenous people?

Europeans were enchanted by the indigenous people, particularly the women, who were described as 'not displeasing to the eye.'

What is the meaning of the 'Columbian exchange'?

The Columbian exchange refers to the transfer of plants, animals, and diseases between the Americas and Europe after contact.

What were some main changes in the New World after the arrival of conquerors?

The native population drastically declined due to diseases like smallpox, and European agricultural practices were introduced.

when was the mexica empire defeated

1521

When the mexicas got established and where? What was the sign that their god

Huitzilopochtli gave to them?

The sign given by their god Huitzilopochtli to the Mexica was an eagle with a snake in its beak, perched on a prickly pear cactus. This vision was a divine guide that led them to the location where they would build their city, Tenochtitlan, on an island in Lake Texcoco.

What is Mesoamerica?

A culturally unified geographic area that includes central and southern Mexico and most of Central America north of the Isthmus of Panama.