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Group
two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who come together to achieve particular objectives
Formal Group
define by the organization's structure
Informal Group
neither formally structured no organizationally determined
Ingroup favoritism:
perspective in which we see member of our ingroup as better than other people, and people not in our group as all the same
Outgroup:
The inverse of an ingroup, which can mean everyone outside the group but is more usually an identified other group.
Punctuated-equilibrium model:
A set of phases that temporary groups go through that involves transitions between inertia and activity.
Task:
type of behavior relevant to group’s mission, goal or objective
Maintenance:
type of behavior relevant to the group remaining in good working order having good task work climate, and good relationship that permit maximum use of member’s resources and skills
Self-oriented behavior
behaviors that hinder a group’s effectiveness when member don’t care about the mission or goal and only care about their own particular interest with disregard to needs of group or objective
Role:
the set of expected behavior patterns that are attributed to occupying a given position in social unit
Role perception:
our views of how we’re supposed to act in a given situation
Role expectation:
how others believe you should act in a given situation
Role conflict
conflict experienced when multiple roles are incompatible
Interrole conflict
A situation in which the expectations of an individual’s different, separate groups are in opposition.
Psychological contract:
An unwritten agreement that sets out what a manager expects from an employee, and vice versa
Norms:
acceptable standard of behavior within a group that are shared by the group’s members
-Emotion, conformity, and behavior
-Strong emotions, can influence the emotions of the other members
Conformity:
the adjustment of one’s behavior to align with the norms of the group
Reference groups:
Important groups to which individuals belong or hope to belong and with whose norms individuals are likely to conform.
Deviant Workplace Behavior:
voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational norms and in doing so, threaten the well-being of the organization or its members
Production Deviant
leaving early, intentionally working slowly, wasting resource
Political Deviant
favoritism, gossiping/spreading rumor, blaming coworkers
Property Deviant
sabotage, lying about hr worked, stealing from org
Personal aggression Deviant
sexual harassment, verbal abuse, stealing
Status:
a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others
Status characteristic theory:
A theory stating that differences in status characteristics create status hierarchies within groups.
Theory in which status has the characteristic of above
Determined by:
Power a person wield over others
Person ability to contribute to a group’s goals
An individual’s personal characteristics
Status and Norms
High-status people often have more freedom to deviate from norms and are better to resist conformity pressure
Status and Group Interaction
people seeking higher status are more assertive, lower status member may not participate
Status Inequity:
perceived inequity crate disequilibrium
Status and stigmatization:
people who are stigmatized can “infect” others
Stigma by association
This “stigma by association” effect can result in negative opinions and evaluations of the person affiliated with the stigmatized individual, even if the association is brief and purely coincidental.
Social loafing:
tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than alone
Cohesiveness:
the degree to which members of the group are attracted to each other and motivated to stay in the group
Diversity:
the degree to which members of the group are similar to or different from one another
Fault Lines:
perceived vision that split groups into 2 or more subgroups based on individuals difference such as gender race, age, work experience, and education
Splits are generally detrimental to group functioning and performance
Groupthink:
relate norms and describe situation in which group pressure from conformity deter the group from critically appraising unusual, minority, or unpopular views
A phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action.
Groupshift:
describe the way group members tend to exaggerate their initial position when discussing alternatives and arriving at solutions
A change between a group’s decision and an individual decision that a member within the group would make; the shift can be toward either conservatism or greater risk but it generally is toward a more extreme version of the group’s original position
Interacting groups:
rely on verbal and non-verbal interactions to communicate
Ex: Members meet face-to-face and rely on both verbal and nonverbal interaction to communicate.
Brainstorming
generate a list of creative alternatives
Nominal group Technique (NGT):
restricts discussion during the decision-making process to encourage independent thinking
Before any discussion take, write down idea about the problem
AFter this silent period, present 1 idea for the group
The group dresses the ideas
Each group member silently and independently rank-order the ideas
Personality–job fit theory
A theory that identifies six personality types and pro poses that the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover.
It is more important that employees’ personalities fit with the organizational culture than with the characteristics of any specific job
Person-organization fit:
A theory that people are attracted to and selected by organizations that match their values, and leave when there is no compatibility.
Ex: extraverts fit well with aggressive and team oriented cultures, people high on agreeableness match better with a supportive organizational climate, and highly
Personality:
The sum of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others
Personality traits:
enduring characteristics that describe an individual's behavior
The more consistent the characteristic over time and the more frequently it occurs in diverse situations,
Heredity:
Factors determined at conception; one’s biological, physiological, and inherent psychological makeup.
Physical stature, facial features, gender, temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level, and biological rhythms
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI):
A personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into one of 16 personality types
One of the most widely used personality assessment instruments in the world
Extraverted (E) versus Introverted (I). Extraverted individuals are outgoing, sociable, and assertive. Introverts are quiet and shy.
Sensing (S) versus Intuitive (N). Sensing types are practical and prefer routine and order, and they focus on details. Intuitives rely on unconscious processes and look at the big picture.
Thinking (T) versus Feeling (F). Thinking types use reason and logic to handle problems. Feeling types rely on their personal values and emotions.
Judging (J) versus Perceiving (P). Judging types want control and prefer order and structure. Perceiving types are flexible and spontaneous.
Big Five Model:
A personality assessment model that describes five basic dimensions of personality.
Conscientiousness:
Emotional stability:
Extraversion:
Openness to experience:
Agreeableness:
Conscientiousness:
A personality dimension that describes someone who is responsible, dependable, persistent, and organized.
Those who score low on this dimension are easily distracted, disorganized, and unreliable.
Emotional stability:
A personality dimension that characterizes someone as calm, self-confident, and secure (positive) versus nervous, depressed, and insecure (negative).
Low scorers are hypervigilant and vulnerable to the physical and psychological effects of stress.
Extraversion
A personality dimension describing someone who is sociable, gregarious, and assertive
introverts (low extraversion) tend to be more thoughtful, reserved, timid, and quiet
Openness to experience:
A personality dimension that characterizes someone in terms of imagination, sensitivity, and curiosity.
Those at the low end of the category are conventional and find comfort in the familiar.
Agreeableness
A personality dimension that describes someone who is good natured, cooperative, and trusting.
Those at the low end of the category are conventional and find comfort in the familiar.
Dark Triad:
A constellation of negative personality traits consisting of Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy.
– Socially undesirable traits, which we all have in varying degrees, are also relevant to organizational behavior: Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy
Machiavellianism:
The degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means.
Narcissism:
The tendency to be arrogant, have a grandiose sense of self-importance, require excessive admiration, and possess a sense of entitlement.
Psychopathy:
The tendency for a lack of concern for others and a lack of guilt or remorse when actions cause harm
Core self-evaluation (CSE):
Bottom-line conclusions individuals have about their capabilities, competence, and worth as a person.
Those with negative tend to dislike themselves, question their capabilities, and view themselves as powerless over their environment.
Ex: People who have positive like themselves and see themselves as effective and in control of their environment
Self-monitoring:
A personality trait that measures an individual’s ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors.
High self-monitors show considerable adaptability in adjusting their behavior to external situational factors. They are highly sensitive to external cues and can behave differently in varying situations
Proactive personality:
People who identify opportunities, show initiative, take action, and persevere until meaningful change occurs.
individuals have many desirable behaviors that organizations covet. They have higher levels of job performance and do not need much oversight.
Situation strength theory:
A theory indicating that the way personality translates into behavior depends on the strength of the situation
Clarity
Consistency
Constraint
Consequences
Trait activation theory:
A theory that predicts that some situations, events, or interventions “activate” a trait more than others.
Values:
Basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence
Value system:
A hierarchy based on a ranking of an individual’s values in terms of their intensity.
Represent a prioritizing of individual values by content and intensity
Terminal Values:
Desirable end-states of existence; the goals a person would like to achieve during his or her lifetime.
These are the goals a person would like to achieve during a lifetime.
Ex: blank values are prosperity and economic success, freedom, health and well-being, world peace, and meaning in life.
Instrumental values
Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving one’s terminal values
Ex: autonomy and self-reliance, personal discipline, kindness, and goal- orientation.
Hofstede Framework:
found that managers and employees varied on five value dimensions of national culture:
Power Distance:
Uncerainty Avoidance
Long-term Orientation
Collectivism
Masculinity
GLOBE Framework:
research program is an ongoing cross-cultural investigation of leadership and national culture. Using data from 825 organizations in 62 countries, the GLOBE team identified nine dimensions on which national cultures differ.
Power Distance
Uncerainty Avoidance
Future Orientation
Institutional Collectivism
Ingroup collectviism
Gender eglistartism
assertiveness
Humane orientation
Performance orietnation
Power distance:
A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally
Individualism:
A national culture attribute that describes the degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of groups.
Collectivism:
A national culture attribute that describes a tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them.
Masculinity:
A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which the culture favors traditional masculine work roles of achievement, power, and control. Societal values are characterized by assertiveness and materialism.
Femininity:
A national culture attribute that indicates little differentiation between male and female roles; a high rating indicates that women are treated as the equals of men in all aspects of the society
Uncertainty avoidance:
A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them.
Long-term orientation:
A national culture attribute that emphasizes the future, thrift, and persistence.
Short-term orientation:
A national culture attribute that emphasizes the present and accepts change.
Motivation:
the process that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal
Intensity: the amount of effort put forth to meet the goal
Direction: efforts are channeled toward organizational goals
Persistence: how long the effort is maintained
Behavior
= Needs Expect probability of success to goal incentive * justice or perception of fairness:
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory:
Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of five needs—physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization—in which, as each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.
Self-actualization:
Esteem:
Social-belongingness:
Safety-security:
Physiological:
Self-actualization:
Drive to become what are capable of becoming: growth, achieving potential, and self-fulfillment
Esteem:
internal factors: self-respect, autonomy, and achievement. External factor: status, recognition, and attention
Social-belongingness:
Affection, belongingness, acceptance, friendship
Safety-security:
security and protection from physical and emotional harm
Physiological
includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex ,and other bodily needs
Herzberg’s Two-Factor
A theory that relates intrinsic factors to job satisfaction and associates extrinsic factors with dissatisfaction.
The factors that lead to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction.
Hygiene factor
Factors—such as company policy and administration, supervision, and salary—that, when adequate in a job, placate workers. When these factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied.
McClelland’s Theory of Needs (Three Needs Theory):
A theory that states achievement, power, and affiliation are three important needs that help explain motivation
nAch: The drive to excel
NPow: The need to make other behave in a way they would not have behaved otherwise
nAff: The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationship
Intrinsic motivator:
internal behavior that satisfies personal needs and values. Internal and personal rewards
Extrinsic motivators:
engages in a behavior to receive an external reward. THe focus is on the outcome and what you will get, even if you don’t care for the behavior
Self-determination Theory:
A theory of motivation that is concerned with the beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation.
People prefer to feel they have control over their actions, and anything that makes a previously enjoyed task feel more like an obligation than a freely chosen activity undermines motivation
It suggests that some caution in the use of extrinsic rewards to motivate is wise and that pursuing goals from intrinsic motives
Cognitive Evaluation Theory:
A version of self-determination theory in which allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior that had been previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation if the rewards are seen as controlling.
When people are paid for work, it feels less like something they want to do and more like something they have to do
Ex: Computer programmers value writing code because she likes to solve problems, a bonus for writing a certain number of lines of code every day could feel coercive, and her intrinsic motivation would suffer. She may or may not increase her number of lines of code per day in response to the extrinsic motivator.
Self-Concordance:
The degree to which people’s reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values.
OB research suggests that people who pursue work goals for intrinsic reasons are more satisfied with their jobs, feel they fit into their organizations better, and may perform better
Goal-Setting Theory:
A theory stating that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance.
Highly effective individuals and organization set specific difficult goals, and provide feedback to achieve performance
Focus on intrinsic rewards:
Assumption
Goal Commitment
Task characteristic
Goal increase performance when goals are
Specific
Difficult, but accepted by employees
Accompanied by feedback
Promotion focus:
A self-regulation strategy that involve striving for goals through advancement and accomplishment
Prevention focus:
A self-regulation strategy that involve striving for goal byu fulfilling duties and obligations
Management by Objectives (MBO):
A program that encompasses specific goals, particip-atively set, for an explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress
Convert overall organizational objectives into specific objective for work units and individual
4 ingredients are common are:
goal specificity
performance feedback
Explicit time period
Participation in decision making
Self-efficacy theory:
an individual beliefs that he or she is capable of performing a task
The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed.
is increased by:
Enactive mastery: gain experience
Vicarious modeling: see someone else do the task
Verbal persuasion: someone convince you that you have the skills
Arousal: get energized
Reinforcement Learning:
A theory suggesting that behavior is a function of its consequences.
Behaviorism:
A theory stating that behavior follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner.
Expectancy Theory:
A theory stating that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
Focuses on 3 relationships:
Expectancy
instrumentality
Valence
Social-Learning Theory and Reinforcement:
The view that we can learn through both observation and direct experience.
- 4 processes determine their influence on an individual
Attentional processes: People learn from a model only when they recognize and pay attention to its critical features.
Retention Processes: A model’s influence depends on how well the individual remembers the model’s action after the model is no longer readily available
Motor reproduction Processes: After a person has seen a new behavior by observing the model, watching must be converted to doing.
Reinforcement Processes: Individuals are motivated to exhibit the modeled behavior if positive incentives or rewards are provided
Valence
the rewards–personal goals relationship. The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual.
Attractiveness of outcome to the individual
