General Biology: Fundamentals of Life, Evolution, Organ Systems, and Lab Safety

Flashcards covering core biological principles, evolutionary history, human anatomy and organ systems, lab safety practices, and quantitative data collection methods.

What are the two categories and three domains of life?

• Prokaryotes (cells without a nucleus, including Bacteria and Archaea)

• Eukaryotes (Protista, Fungi, Plants, and Animals).

what is the cambrian explosion?

When aquatic life (ex: lobe finned fish) began to crawl out the water with their weight supporting fins and rudimentary lung

Who did amphibians evolve from?

Fish; which is why they need to reproduce in water (ex: tadpoles)

What percent of organisms were aquatic during the cambrian explosion?

70-90%

What animals survived the meteor hit?

Underground mammals who were nocturnal and fed off the dead carcasses of extinct dinosaurs

What is descent with modification?

Descendants from a common ancestor but with modified traits

Divergent evolution?

Accumulated differences from ancestors as they adapt to different environment over time

What is the founder effect and genetic bottlenecking?

Decreased genetic variability (ex: caused when a species is split apart and hasn’t evolved to be genetically variable

EXAM QUESTION: where do whales belong in the tree of life?

anatomically, whales are seperate from artiodactyls (animals with ankle bones), however, DNA shows whales once had an ankle bone

What are the 3 categories of homologies?

Anatomical, Embryonic, DNA

What is a homology?

A similarity resulting from common ancestors

Organs in endocrine system

Pituitary gland, ovaries, testes, hypothalamus, thalamus

Reproductive system function and sex hormones and organs

reproduction ; estrogen and testosterone ; ovaries and testes

Immune system function and components

protection from infectious diseases and cancers ; antibodies, lymphocytes ( T, B, WBC’s)

Neurons Functions

nervous cells that send messages throughout the body using electrical impulses between neurotransmitters

Hypothalamus

regulates body temperature

Requirements for life

• Elements (C, H, N, O, P, S)

• Water

• Energy

What is the oxygen revolution?

• Sudden influx of oxygen creation billions of years ago

• Caused by Cyanobacterium: 1 celled prokaryote that photosynthesized and created oxygen

Why are viruses classified as nonliving organisms?

Viruses are nonliving because they are:

• not made of cells, lack organs

• cannot reproduce independently

• must infect other organisms to consume energy.

What is homeostasis, and what is an example of it in the human body?

The constant regulation of the body to stay alive.

Example: the regulation of blood glucose levels by the pancreas releasing insulin to remove excessive glucose from the bloodstream.

What were the six steps of Edward Jenner's scientific method regarding smallpox?

1. Observation: People die of smallpox, but milkmaids do not.

2. Question: Why don't milkmaids die from smallpox?

3. Hypothesis: Something about milkmaids makes them immune.

4. Prediction: IF a person receives milkmaid DNA, THEN they will become immune to smallpox.

5. Test: Inject someone with milkmaid DNA, then expose them to smallpox DNA.

6. Conclusion: Milkmaids contracted cowpox from cows and easily fought off smallpox.

What are the three types of muscle tissue shown, and which are voluntary or involuntary?

1. Skeletal muscle (voluntary)

2. Smooth muscle (involuntary)

3. Cardiac muscle (involuntary)

What are the primary functions of the skeletal system, and what condition occurs from excessive calcium release?

• provides posture,

• upright support,

• enables movement with muscles,

• protects vital organs (brain, heart, lungs),

• stores calcium.

what happens when excess calcium is released from the bones?

osteoporosis

What do all living organisms have in common?

• Homeostasis

• Use Energy

• Made up of cells

• Have DNA

• Evolve

• Reproduce

What do all nonliving viruses have in common?

• Nonliving

• Not made up of cells

• No organs

• Consume energy by infecting other organisms

• Don’t reproduce independently

Whats the relation between structure and function?

Structures relate to somethings functions (ex: protein lock and key receptors)

Why are genes important?

Genes turn on correct proteins for an organ’s function

What should ever scientific method have?

repeatable, modifying hypothesis, large # of test subjects, correct controls/lower # of variables

What are the functions and major organs of the urinary system?

Functions: filtering blood, excreting waste products, regulating sodium and potassium levels, and controlling blood pressure and water concentration.

Key organs:

kidneys

bladder

Which major structures and organs form the human lymphatic system?

The tonsils, thymus, spleen, small intestine (mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue), bone marrow, lymph nodes, and lymph vessels.

What are the three main layers of skin, and what functions does the integumentary system perform?

Epidermis, Dermis, and Hypodermis.

Functions include protecting against external elements, UV light, and bacteria; producing vitamin D; and regulating temperature through sweat glands.

What key evolutionary milestones occurred at 3.8 BYA, 2 BYA, 1 BYA, and 541 MYA?

3.8 BYA: First Prokaryote;

2 BYA: First Eukaryote cell;

1 BYA: First multicellular organism;

541 MYA: Cambrian explosion (aquatic life).

How do forelimbs of humans, cats, whales, and bats illustrate anatomical homology?

They display structural similarity in their underlying skeletal framework (Humerus, Radius, Ulna, Carpals, Metacarpals, and Phalanges) derived from a shared common ancestor, even though they function differently.

What is a vestigial structure?

A homology that had full functionality in an ancestor but has marginal or reduced importance in a present organism (e.g., the human tailbone).

What is convergent evolution, and what is a prime example?

• The independent evolution of similar (analogous) features in distantly related lineages due to adaptation to similar environments

• as flight in bats (mammals) and birds.

What physical adaptations occurred as human ancestors moved out of trees in Africa 250,000 years ago?

• standing up (bipedalism),

• manual dexterity (hands)

• less body hair,

• more sweat glands,

• skin color variation,

• a larger brain (which required a smaller pelvis trade-off).

How do melanin levels and Vitamin D requirements interact with UV radiation exposure?

High UV areas favor increased melanin to protect cells from harmful radiation mutations.

Low UV areas favor lower melanin to absorb sufficient UV light for Vitamin D synthesis, which aids calcium absorption for strong bones.

What are the five main principles of Darwin's Theory of Evolution?

1. Variation

2. Overproduction

3. Competition

4. Differential Survival (better traits = better survival)

5. Natural Selection

How do Eutherians and Marsupials differ in embryonic development?

Eutherians complete their embryonic development inside the uterus.

Marsupials are born as embryos and complete development inside an external pouch.

What term refers to organisms found only in specific geographic locations, and who developed paleontology?

Organisms found only in specific places are called endemics.

Paleontology was developed in large part by French scientist Georges Cuvier (1769–1832).

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What material types correspond to Fire Extinguisher Classes A, B, C, and D?

Class A: Wood, trash, paper;

Class B: Liquid ignitables;

Class C: Electric fires;

Class D: Combustible metals.

What is the mandatory procedure when diluting an acid with water in the laboratory?

Always ADD ACID TO WATER, never add water to acid.

How many sections are in a Safety Data Sheet (SDS), and what are the first five sections?

An SDS contains 16 sections. The first five sections are:

1. Identification,

2. Hazard Identification,

3. Composition,

4. First-Aid,

5. Fire-Fighting.

Which international system standardizes diamond-shaped hazard pictograms on chemical labels?

The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals (GHS).

How do accuracy and precision differ in scientific measurement?

Accuracy refers to how close a measured value is to the true value. Precision refers to how closely repeated measurements in a dataset agree with one another.

What are the standard base measurements and abbreviations for mass, volume, and length in metric biology labs?

Mass: Gram ($\text{g}$); Volume: Liter ($\text{l}$); Length: Meter ($\text{m}$).

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What three basic volumetric transfer tools are used for accurate liquid handling in biology labs?

Transfer pipets, serological pipettes, and droppers (in dropper bottles).

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Endocrine system

The organ system that uses chemical messengers called hormones to communicate throughout the body and regulate cellular functions by activating specific genes.

Estrogen

A primary sex hormone that plays a key role in female reproductive development and supports bone density and strength.

Major structures and glands of the endocrine system

Pituitary gland, ovaries, testes, hypothalamus, and thalamus.

Primary functions of the skeletal system

Provides upright posture and structural support, enables movement through muscle attachments, protects vital organs, and stores mineral calcium.

Osteoporosis

A bone disease marked by reduced density and increased fragility caused by excessive release of calcium from bone tissue.

Primary functions of the muscular system

Facilitates bodily movement and aids in thermal regulation, such as generating heat through shivering.

Three types of muscle tissue and their control mechanisms

Skeletal muscle (voluntary), cardiac muscle (involuntary), and smooth muscle (involuntary).

Primary functions of the urinary system

Filters blood, excretes metabolic waste, regulates sodium and potassium levels, and controls blood pressure and fluid volume.

Primary organs of the urinary system

Kidneys and bladder.

Main function and key sex hormones of the human reproductive system

Enables the production of offspring using regulatory hormones such as estrogen and testosterone.

Primary function and major cell types of the immune system

Defends the body against infectious diseases and cancer using specialized components such as antibodies and lymphocytes ($T$ and $B$ white blood cells).

Primary function of the lymphatic system

Filters lymph fluid inside lymph nodes to trap and destroy infectious agents and foreign molecules.

Main function of the nervous system

Detects internal and external stimuli, processes sensory information, and coordinates rapid bodily responses through chemical and electrical communication.

Major organs and pathways of the human nervous system

Brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves.

Neurons

Specialized nerve cells that transmit information using electrical impulses and chemical neurotransmitters.

Hypothalamus

A brain structure that functions as the primary control center for regulating body temperature and maintaining internal homeostasis.

Two primary cellular categories and three domains of life

Categories: Prokaryotes (lacking a nucleus) and Eukaryotes (containing a nucleus). Domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.

Biological reasons viruses are classified as nonliving

They lack cellular organization, contain no organelles, cannot reproduce independently, and require a host cell to harness energy.

Homeostasis

The physiological state of maintainable internal equilibrium necessary for organism survival.

Fire Extinguisher Classes A, B, C, and D material types

Class A: Ordinary combustibles (wood, paper, trash); Class B: Flammable liquids; Class C: Electrical fires; Class D: Combustible metals.

Standard safety protocol for diluting concentrated acid

Always add acid to water (never water to acid) to prevent violent thermal reactions and splashing.

Safety Data Sheet (SDS)

A standardized 16-section document providing hazard information, physical properties, handling instructions, and emergency procedures for chemicals.

Globally Harmonized System (GHS)

An international standard that unifies chemical safety classification, labeling, and diamond-shaped hazard pictograms.

Difference between accuracy and precision in data collection

Accuracy describes how close a measurement is to the true standard value, whereas precision describes how closely repeated measurements agree with each other.

Standard metric base units for mass, volume, and length in biology

Mass is measured in grams ($\text{g}$), volume in liters ($\text{l}$), and length in meters ($\text{m}$).

Skin adaptation that allows reptiles to thrive in dry environments

Thick scales and impermeable skin that prevent water loss.

Adaptation enabling terrestrial reproduction in reptiles

Eggs protected by a shell that guards embryos against drying out.

Respiratory adaptation in reptiles compensating for thick, scaly skin

Highly developed lungs, as gas exchange cannot occur across their impermeable skin.