IB History Semester 1

Differences between Sunni & Shia Muslims

Shia - Believe that authority in Islam should be based on leaders

Sunni - Believe that authority in Islam should be based on the law

12th Imam

Sunni belief that the 12th Imam will reappear at the end of time to establish universal justice, peace, and Islamic rule, ending oppression and tyranny.

Majlis

Introduces and passes laws, summons and impeaches ministers

Supreme Leader

Appoints head of judiciary, 6 members of the Guardian Council, Commanders of all armed forces, Friday Prayer leaders, and head of radio/TV.

Qajar Dynasty

Persian Monarchy in decline by the late 1800s because they failed to modernize the nation. Instead, they gave contracts to foreign companies (mostly Britain) to take its oil for a very low price.

Reza Khan

Nearly illiterate but a charismatic leader, military man

How Reza Khan rose to power

Led a military coup of 3,000 men to Tehran and arrested many prominent politicians. He became Prime Minister in 1923 and encouraged Ahmad Shah to go to Europe. Using “political theater” in 1926, Reza convinced the Majlis to depose the Qajar dynasty and be the next Shah.

Reza Khan’s Economic Reforms

Gave British control of oil, trans-Iranian Railroad, Tehran University

Social reforms to modernize Iran

Modernization and secularization of Iran: clothing (veils, hats, suits), women’s education.

D’Arcy Concession

British engineer William Knox D’Arcy obtained a concession from the Qajar Monarchy that gave him exclusive rights to Iran’s oil in return for 16% of his annual profits.

1933 Concession

The AIOC only gave Persia 5% of the 200 million pounds it generated. In response, Reza Shah terminated the D’Arcy Concession and concluded a new agreement that reduced the amount of land that Britain controlled, and increased Persia’s oil profits to 20%.

Reza Khan abdication of throne

WWII

Mohammad Reza Pahlavi

Shah of Iran from 1941-1979 when he was overthrown by Ayatollah Khomeini in the White Revolution.

Operation Ajax

British MI-6 and CIA staged a coup to remove Mossadegh and reinstate Reza Pahlavi as Shah of Iran.

Anglo-Iranian Oil Company

Incorporated by 1909, where Abadan became the headquarters of the world’s largest oil refinery of its time

Muhammad Mossadegh

Member of the Majilis, he was placed under house arrest for objections to the Shah’s authoritarianism during the 1930s. He was known for strong support of democracy and opposition to foreign influence.

National Front Party

Political Party formed by Mossadegh in 1949. It was supported by the Ulama and secular reformists. Its main goals were to reduce foreign influence and the Shah’s power.

Tudeh Party

Aimed to bring Communism to Iran and secure oil concessions for the USSR during and after WWI. Both the UK and U.S. feared the growing influence of the Tudeh Party during the start of the Cold War. Banned by the Islamic Republic.

White Revolution

A series of reform policies instituted in Iran by Mohammad Reza Shah, beginning in 1963. The plan was made official with a national referendum that received 99% support. Its purpose was to modernize and Westernize Iran rapidly.

National Resurgence Party

Founded by the Shah when he eliminated the two party system. Practiced frequent arrests, censorship, and torture of political prisoners.

Persepolis

Elaborate 5 day celebration of the 2,500th anniversary of Cyrus the Great’s founding of the Iranian monarchy and the pre-Islamic Persian Empire.

Black Friday

4th day of nearly 100,000 protesters calling for an Islamic government with Khomeini as its leader. The Shah declared martial law, and when some refused to disperse, Iranian troops fired on the crow, killing up to 100 civilians. This served as a turning point in the revolution because it meant no going back.

Ettelaat Letter

Article planted by SAVAK on the front pages of the Ettelaat that slandered Ayatollah Khomeini. Clerics and students in Qom protested and at least 20 were killed by the police. These deaths gave the moment an Islamic coloring and traditional cycles of gathering 40 days later were met with more government repression at each rally.Ayatollah

Ruhollah Khomeini

Led the overthrow of the Shah’s regime in 1979 to create an Islamic Republic. He became the leader of Iran after the 1979 Revolution until his death.

Cassette Tape Revolution

Ayatollah Khomeini’s lectures and recordings during his exile to Turkey and France were smuggled back into Iran and distributed nationwide by a network of his former students in order to spread Khomeini’s influence.

Vilayet e-Faqih

A series of Khomeini’s writings became the basis for this book and Iran’s Constitution after the 1979 Revolution. This called for the creation of an Islamic government that would mobilize the lower echelon of society to overthrow the Shah’s regime.

Khordad 15

On June 15th, 1963, Iranians protested the arrest of Ayatollah Khomeini for publicly denouncing the Shah, Israel, and the U.S.. The Shah violently repressed the demonstration, resulting in dozens of deaths. Khomeini claimed that this was the beginning of the Islamic Revolution and ordered a national day of mourning.

Operation Eagle Claw

Complicated U.S. military rescue mission which resulted in an aborted mission, the crash of 2 aircraft, deaths of 8 American service members, and 1 Iranian citizen.

Algiers Agreement (1975)

Agreement where Iran ended its support for the Kurdish separatists within Iraq, and Iraq dropped its claims to Khuzestan and conceded that the border between Iran and Iraq along the Shatt al-Arab should follow the deep water line, meaning Iran controlled half of it.

Shatt al-Arab Waterway

Waterway that divided Iran and Iraq that was important to both countries oil experts, serving as Iraq’s only outlet to the sea.

Khuzestan

Oil-rich region that Iraq wanted to increase its wealth and improve strategic position and control of the gulf. Iraq shut the waterway off from Iran and provided itself with security along the border.

Kurdish Independence

The largest ethnic group in the world to not have their own state. They make up about 15% of the Iraqi population, and their desire to be independent from Hussein brought them into conflict.

Saddam Hussein

Iraq’s President who waged war on Iran and ordered an invasion of Kuwait. He was defeated by the U.S. and its allies during the Gulf War, and by a U.S.-led invasion in 2003.

Human-wave assaults

Iran lacked heavy artillery and weapons, but outnumbered the Iraqis. The basij launched first attacks on the weakest part of Iraqi lines. The Revolutionary Guards followed up and broke Iraqi lines. Mechanized forces went through the breach to surround/defeat Iraq. Total War used all their resources.

Khedival Dynasty

Ruler exercising authority in a colony on behalf of a sovereign state.

Muhammad Ali Pasha

Albanian general sent by the Ottoman Sultan to regain control of Egypt after France withdrew. Used his troops to take control of the area and proclaimed himself of Egypt in 1805.

Reasons Britain wanted influence in Egypt

Cotton for textile mills & other raw materials, the Suez Canal

Suez Canal

Planned by the French diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps, finished in 1869, keeps European nationals from circumnavigating Africa to get to Asia, built mostly by Egypt.

Lord Cromer

Dominated British policy in Egypt. He was part of a commission to repay Egypt’s debts in controlling ways of transportation and education. He frowned upon education because a more educated society demands too many rights and independence. He secured transportation through the Suez Canal.

Dinshaway Incident

Dispute between Dinshaway villagers and British soldiers over hunting grounds that led to bloodshed. 4 villagers injured from 2 shots “accidentally fired” by the British. The villagers beat up the British, and 4 were hung, 9 imprisoned, 5 publicly flogged, and 3 both imprisoned and flogged.

British Troops in Egypt during WWI

British troops occupied Egypt from 1882 to the early 1950s. Originally stationed to temporarily secure the Suez Canal. Egypt was a large base for allied troops during the war. Recruited thousands of Egyptians for labor camps to aid troops.

The Wafd Party

Egyptian Nationalist Party that emerged after an Egyptian delegation was refused a hearing at the Versailles Treaty negotiations following WWI.

Saad Zaghlul

Led a group of Egyptians to ask the British High Commissioner to send a delegation to the Versailles Peace Conference to negotiate for Egyptian independence. He was exiled to Malta when his 1st request was denied. 1919 Egyptian Revolution broke out. Britain allowed Zaghlul and the Wafd to go to the Paris Peace Conference, but Woodrow Wilson and others rejected their petition.

1919 Egyptian Revolution

Protests broke out after Zaghlul’s request was denied. 800 Egyptians were killed in this uprising, but Britain eventually let the Wafd go to the conference. Led to the Declaration of Independence in Egypt.

1922 Egyptian Declaration of Independence & how it gave Egypt partial independence

Britain declared Egypt as no longer a protectorate and therefore a sovereign, independent nation. Britain still allowed itself to defend foreign interests, minorities, and foreign attack or influence.

1923 Egyptian Constitution

Egypt’s 1st Constitution, provided important protections for individual freedoms but it also gave the king most of the power.

Muslim Brotherhood

Egyptian religious and nationalist movement that proclaimed social and political regeneration in Egypt was tied to restoring Islam as a guiding force in national life. Became an example for later fundamentalist movements in the Islamic world.

February 4th Incident

In 1942, King Faruq wanted his friend to take the open prime minister position; however he was an axis sympathizer. Instead, the British preferred Faruq called the Wafdist to lead the government.

Impact of Holocaust & DPs on the Palestine Mandate

Holocaust: Shifted world sympathies toward finding a home for the Jewish community.

Displaced Persons: World War II displaced approximately 7 million people, and about 25,000 of them were Jewish.

Exodus 1947

Ship transporting Jews who sought to illegally immigrate into Palestine, paid by American Jews, where British destroyers surrounded it. British naval forces entered the ship, and a Jewish crew member was killed, 2 passengers were killed, and dozens others faced injuries. This event sparked protests against Britain with sympathy for the Jews.

Jewish Agency role in future Israeli Government

Political arm of the Zionist movement in Palestine. Oversaw immigration, land purchases, and the development of infrastructure for the future state.

King David Hotel Bombing

Planned by the leader of Irgun and future Prime Minister Menachem Begin, killing 91 people. They planted a bomb, designed to catch the world’s attention. 54/91 deaths were civilians, yet the Israelis deny that they targeted civilians.

Haganah

Defense force of the Jewish community in Palestine, formed in 1920 in response to growing Arab resistance to Jewish immigration. It built underground weapons factories and helped facilitate illegal Jewish immigration.

Irgun

Zionist paramilitary group that split from Britain over ideological differences. Believed in a more aggressive approach by engaging in operations against British and Arab communities/authorities in Palestine. They carried out the King David Hotel Bombing.

Stern Gang

Sought to expel the Arabs from Palestine through direct force including bombings. Went as far as trying to collaborate with Nazi Germany. Eventually joined the Israeli government after Independence was declared in 1948.

UNSCOP

Minority Proposal: 1 state solution, create ‘independent federal state’ after 3 year preparatory stage under the UN trusteeship. 2 separate entities with local administrative powers, but have a united central authority divided between Arabs and Jews.

Majority Proposal: 2 state solution, Jewish and Arab state, internationalization of Jerusalem, economic union between 2 states, Britain would oversee mandate during a 2 year interim period and admit 150,000 refugees into the proposed Jewish state.

UN Resolution 181

Resolution officially adopted by the UN General Assembly based on the UNSCOP majority plan on November 29, 1947.

Plan D

Implemented by Haganah, massacres at Deir Yassin, Lydda, and Ramle. Goal of dominating the area of Jewish state and the protection of its borders and the blocs of Jewish settlement and population outside its borders against an enemy.

Deir Yassin

April 9th, 1948, members of the Irgun & Stern Gang attacked, murdering 254 men, women, and children. Arabs believed that this was part of a campaign of terrorism to “encourage” the Arab population to leave their homes.

Significance of May 14, 1948

The Provisional Government of Israel declares statehood.

David Ben Gurion

Zionist leader & Prime Minister of Israel

Impact of 1st truce on outcome of 1948 War

UN Security Council declared a truce and an arms embargo for all sides. Britain supplied weapons to Arabs, complying with the embargo. Czechoslovakia ignored the embargo and gave Israel weapons.

Reasons Arab armies had a difficult time defeating Israel

Arab disunity and organizational failure, Jewish unified command, fierce determination and resupply of weapons during the mid-June truce.

Territorial Results of 1948 War

Israel: Controlled 78% of the original Palestine Mandate.

Surrounding Arab States: Jordan obtained East Jerusalem and the West Bank. Egypt obtained the Gaza strip.

Numbers of Palestinian Refugees

Between 600-740K

UN Resolution 194 (Article 11)

Cited by those who believe Israel should allow for the repatriation of Palestinian Refugees.

UNRWA

Set up as temporary means of dealing with the refugee crisis after the 1948 War. Responsibilities have been repeatedly renewed by the UN General Assembly. Now provides social services. 

Reasons Free Officers were angry with Farouk

He allowed virtual occupation by Britain: During WWII, 250K Britain and Allied Troops in Egypt. He also had a reputation as an out-of-touch playboy who cared more about land owners than the majority of people. By the 1950s 80% of Egyptians were illiterate and living in extreme poverty and ⅔ of land owned by a small 6% of wealthy landowners. He was blamed for Egypt’s humiliating defeat.

Anthony Eden’s role in Suez Crisis

Imperialist tactics, overreacted by using force, and deliberately started war in the Middle East.

Aswan Dam’s role in Suez Crisis

U.S. cancelled funding of the Aswan Dam.

Baghdad Pact

Alliance between Iraq, Turkey, Iran, Pakistan & Britain. Aimed at preventing the spread of Soviet influence in the Middle East through shared defense.

Fedayeen Raids

Border raids between Israel & Egypt

Gamal Abdel Nasser

President of Egypt from 1954-1970

Sevres Protocol

Israel attacks Egypt through the Sinai Peninsula until reaching the Suez Canal. Britain & France issue an ultimatum to Egypt and Israel, demanding both parties separate at least 10 miles on either side of the canal. Knowing Egypt would reject this, Britain & France would then send troops to reoccupy the canal zone while Israel cleared the blockade at the Straits of Tiran.

Operation Musketeer

Anglo-French plan for the invasion of the Suez Canal in 1956.

Straits of Tiran

Straits between Sinai and Arabian peninsulas that connect the Gulf of Aqaba and the Red Sea.

UNEF

Established after the Suez Crisis to supervise relations between Egypt and Israel

David Ben Gurion

Zionist leader & Prime Minister of Israel.

Long-Term causes of 1967 War

Unresolved Palestinian Refugee Crisis (1948 War). Egyptian bitterness: loss to Israel and invasion of Egypt (1956)

Syria, Jordan, Egypt Mutual Defense Pact

After a radical regime came to power in Syria and accused Nasser of not supporting PLO Guerillas, Nasser signed a defense pact with the new government of Syria & King Hussein

as-Samu Raid

al-Fatah planted a mine that killed 3 Israeli soldiers. IDF retaliated by raiding the village of as-Samu: killed 15 Jordanian troops & 3 civilians, over 100 houses burned.

Golan Heights

Syrians opened fire on an Israeli tractor ploughing land in a de-militarized zone. Israelis fired back, and Syrians started shelling Israeli settlements in the area. Israeli planes were called in and intercepted by Syrian fighter planes. In the dogfight, 6 Syrian planes were shot down and Israeli planes buzzed Damascus.

Moshe Dayan

Early officer in Haganah in WWII, commander of Israeli forces in Jerusalem in 1948 War. Chief of Staff and direct commander of Israeli forces in the Suez Conflict. Minister of Defense in the 1967 War.

Levi Eshkhol

Prime Minister of Israel during 1967 War

Role of USSR in starting war

Spread false information and supplied arms to Syria and Egypt.

Nasser’s acts of brinkmanship that helped cause the 1967 War

His rhetoric, he moved 100K troops to the Egypt/Israeli border. Demanded U Tant remove UNEF troops from Egypt/Israeli border. Blocked Straits of Tiran.

Influence of Israeli airpower on outcome of war

Destroyed runways in Egypt, Israel destroyed Egypt’s air force.

How USSR tried to help Arab States during the war

Sent tanks to Syria

How the United States helped Israel obtain their goals in the war

Advanced the reason for war by pressing Israel to go to war.

Territorial Results of 1967 War

Israel quadrupled the territory they took: Old City, Golan Heights, West Bank, Sinai Peninsula.

UN Resolution 242

Resolution of the UN Security Council after the 1967 War to help secure a “just and lasting peace”. Basis of diplomatic efforts to end the Arab-Israeli conflict until the Camp David Accords in 1978.

Khartoum Resolution

After the 1967 War, the Arab League held a conference in Khartoum, Sudan. 12 Arab Heads of State attended. Except for Egypt, this was the basis for official negotiation policies of most Arab states toward Israel for the next 2 decades.

Difference b/t 1964 PLO Charter & 1968 PLO Charter

1964: Jews of Palestinian origin who are willing to live peacefully and loyally. 1968: Jews who lived in Palestine prior to 1947 are considered Palestinians.

Ahmad Shukairy

1st Chairman of PLO (1964-1967) Palestinian diplomat from a well-to-do family, unfamiliar.

PLO

Founded in 1964 Arab League Summit in Egypt. Umbrella organization that initially aimed to unite various Arab groups to create a liberated Palestine in Israel. Today the PLO claims to represent all Palestinians while running the Palestinian National Authority.

Yasser Arafat

Founder of al-Fatah, the largest Palestinian group in the PLO. Chairman of PLO from 1969-2004. International representative and symbol of the Palestinian people. Became leader of the Palestinian Authority when Palestinians were granted limited self-government.

Cause of Black September

USSR: sent tanks to Syria, Syria: massing tank formations on Jordan River, limited intervention to protect Palestine, Jordan: Destroyed Syrian tanks, drove Arafat & PLO out of Jordan

Egypt & Arab League: Leaders gathered to ask Hussein to stop killing, sent King of Sudan to Jordan, got Arafat out of Jordan

U.S.: Tensions with USSR and warned them to stay out, decided to use Israel to help Jordan, ships to support Israel

Israel: Mock attacks to turn tanks around, war planes, force landed, targeting PLO who killed athletes.

Result of Black Friday for PLO

They failed to overthrow King Hussein from Jordan.

Political causes of the Iran-Iraq War

Western/foreign support, Kurdish Independence

Economic causes of Iran-Iraq War

Economic Causes - Control of oil, Shatt al-Arab Waterway