A-Level Sociology - Beliefs in Society Revision Cards - Full Set

AQA A-Level Sociology Paper 2: Topics in Sociology

Substantive Definitions of Religion

A definition that focuses on specific beliefs or practices that characterise what constitutes a religion, often emphasizing the existence of a supernatural being or beings. It can be viewed as an ‘exclusive’ definition of religion.

Functional Definitions of Religion

A definition that emphasises the social or psychological functions of religion, rather than the specific beliefs or practices involved, viewing it as a means to promote social cohesion or individual well-being. It can be viewed as an ‘inclusive’ definition of religion.

Social Constructionist Definitions of Religion

A definition that views religion as a social construct shaped by cultural and societal contexts, focusing on the meanings individuals and groups give to their religious beliefs and practices. It can be viewed as an ‘inclusive’ definition of religion.

Durkheim

Functionalist Sociologist who focused on the role of religion in promoting social cohesion and collective consciousness. Through his study on ‘Totemism’ he highlights how religion serves as a source of social solidarity and shared values within a community. He also makes a distinction between ‘the sacred’ and ‘the profane’, asserting that the sacred represents things set apart and forbidden, eliciting awe and reverence.

Malinowski

A Sociologist/Anthropologist who highlights the Psychological Functions of Religion by highlighting how religion provides psychological comfort in times of crisis and uncertainty. He argues that religious rituals help individuals cope with life's challenges, fostering a sense of control and stability. He showed this in his study of the inhabitants of the Trobriand Islands and the prayer rituals they performed before going Ocean fishing.

Parsons

A Functionalist Sociologist who argues that one of the functions of religion is to reinforce values and meanings in society. He also discusses the concept of Structural Differentiation, which can be linked to secularisation as it refers to how religion performs fewer functions than it did in the past.

Bellah

A sociologist known for his concept of 'civil religion' in America, which suggests that the United States has its own set of sacred beliefs and practices that serve to unify the nation and provide collective identity, similar to traditional religious practices. He also discussed ‘Sheilaism’ a concept that helps to highlight how individuals may have their own personalised belief system.

Marx

A sociologist who critiques religion as the 'opium of the people,' arguing that it serves to justify social inequalities and distracts the proletariat from addressing their material conditions. He believed that religion perpetuates the status quo and serves the interests of the ruling class by promoting false consciousness.

Armstrong

A Feminist who argues that religion has historically been used to oppress women and maintain patriarchal structures in society.

El Saadawi

A Feminist who argues that religion is a tool of patriarchy. Religion itself is not inherently patriarchal but has been utilised over time to oppress women.

Woodhead

A Feminist who discusses ‘religious forms of feminism’ highlighting how religion can be used as a tool to resist patriarchy in some instances.

Weber

A sociologist who explored the relationship between religion and social change, emphasiSing how Protestantism contributed to the development of capitalism in his study ‘The Protestant Ethic and The Spirit of Capitalism’. He also helps to show the processes of disenchantment and rationalisation have contributed to secularisation.

Bruce

A prominent supporter of Secularisation Theory who discusses many different ideas in the Beliefs in Society Topic. These things include contrasting the impacts of the Civil Rights Movement with the New Christian Right, the impact that Cultural Defence and Cultural Transition can have in temporarily resisting secularisation, and the concept of ‘Secularisation from within’ the idea that religion itself has become less religious.

Bloch

A Neo-Marxist who discusses how although religion can be oppressive, it has ‘a dual-character’ meaning that it can also ‘inspire the principle of hope’.

Gramsci

A Neo-Marxist who helps to show, in order to achieve social change, the importance of cultural hegemony and the ways in which the ruling class maintains power through ideological control. He argues that the working-class movement needs ‘Organic Intellectuals’ to create a ‘counter-hegemony’. This can be linked to Liberation Theology, with, arguably, the priests in Latin America, working as organic intellectuals.

Liberation Theology

A movement within the Christian faith that was prominent in Latin America in the 1970s and 1980s, advocating for social justice and the empowerment of the poor, linking religious teachings with social and political activism. It involved priests challenging dictatorships and inequalities, often by teaching their congregations about communist ideas.

Definition of Secularisation

Define by Wilson as “The process whereby religious beliefs, practices and institutions decline in social significance.”

Berger

A Sociologist who discusses religious diversity. He initially argued that the decline of ‘the sacred canopy’ (everyone in a society believing the same religious beliefs) lead to greater religious pluralism, undermining the ‘plausibility structure’ of any religious beliefs. He then changed his mind, and argued that greater religious diversity can lead individuals to become more religious.

Haddaway

A Sociologist who studied church attendance in America. They found that when asked in interviews/surveys, people often said that they attended church, but performed headcounts in places of worship and found that this was often significantly overstated.

Davie

Sociologist who discusses the concepts of ‘Believing without belonging’ (the idea that people no longer need to attend church to hold religious beliefs) and ‘Vicarious Religion’ (the idea that there is a small number of clergy who engage with religion daily on behalf of a much larger population who may not actively practice themselves).

They also discuss ‘Secular Fundamentalism’ how non-religious individuals can hold fundamentalist ideas. This can be seen, for example, in France with the banning of the Burqa.

Hervieu-Leger

A Sociologist who discusses ‘Spiritual Shopping’ the idea that individuals today create their own belief systems and spirituality by choosing from a variety of religious and spiritual options available to them. This reflects a move away from traditional, organised religion. They highlighted this by showing an increase in two religious groups ‘The Pilgrims’ and ‘The Converts’.

Lyon

A Postmodernist who discusses the study ‘Jesus in Disneyland’. The study highlights how in postmodern society, religious ideas, symbols and icons have been disembedded from their initial context, and can now be found in various popular culture phenomena, showing how spirituality can be commodified. They also discuss the concept of ‘Re-enchantment’ that critiques Weber and highlights how, in postmodern society, people may have lost faith in science and are turning towards spirituality and alternative beliefs to explain phenomena.

Helland

Sociologist who makes a distinction between Online Religion and Religion Online. Online Religion refers to religious practices that occur primarily over the internet e.g. bottom-up religious movements that can lead to religious revivals gaining traction, such as Pagans finding a community online. Religion Online entails the use of the internet to support traditional religious practices. e.g. top-down religious movements that can utilise the internet to spread messages to their congregation e.g. the Pope having a twitter.

Heelas & Woodhead

Sociologists who discuss the emergence of New Age Spirituality. They studied the emergence of a group they called ‘The Holistic Millieu’ a growing number of people who turn to alternative spiritual practices and beliefs outside of traditional religions, seeking personal growth and self-exploration.

Stark & Bainbridge

Sociologists who discuss two main ideas linked to Beliefs in Society:

1) Religious Market Theory - The idea that religions operate in a competitive market, attracting followers much like businesses attract customers. They argue that religion has maintained its popularity in America so much because there has always been significant competition between different religious organisations. No one denomination has ever held a religious monopoly.

2) The Sectarian Cycle - The idea that sects begin as revivals or movements, attract followers, institutionalise over time, and eventually become less fervent, leading to the emergence of new sects.

Norris & Inglehart

Sociologists who discuss Existential Security Theory, which posits that the level of existential security in a society affects the level of religious belief and practice. They argue that in societies with greater security, individuals are less likely to rely on religion for existential comfort. This explains why the developing world is more religious than the western world. They also explain that despite the USA being the world’s wealthiest country, it has higher levels of religiosity than the UK because it has an inadequate welfare system leading to more individuals fearing for their safety and security.

Giddens

A Sociologist who contrasts Fundamentalism with Cosmopolitanism as a way of dealing with the insecurity and instability of late-modern society. Fundamentalists are backwards looking who want to return to ‘fundamental’ religious ideas while Cosmopolitans embrace modernity, diversity, and change, seeking meaning in multiple sources rather than rigid doctrines.

Huntington

A political scientist/sociologist who is know for his ‘Clash of the Civilisations’ theory. He argues that cultural and religious identities will be the primary source of conflict in the post-Cold War world. Huntington claims that future wars will occur along the cultural fault lines separating different civilisations. He also emphasises that Western civilization will face challenges from non-Western cultures, particularly Islam and Confucianism.

Nanda

An Indian sociologist known for her work on religion and globalisation, particularly in relation to the rise of Hindu nationalism and the impact of modernity on traditional beliefs. She explores how global processes influence religious practices and identities in contemporary India. She helps to explain how despite India’s continued economic development it has seen a growth in religious participation with aspects of Hinduism embracing consumerist culture.

Troeltsh

Distinguishes between Churches and Sects. Churches are large, bureaucratic organisations that claim a monopoly of truth that are often linked to the state e.g. the Church of England or the Catholic Church. Sects are smaller groups, often led by a charismatic leader that also claim a monopoly of truth. They are often hostile to the outside world e.g. Westboro Baptist Church.

Niebuhr

A Sociologist who distinguishes between Denominations and Cults. Denominations are larger religious groups that accept some of the values of the broader society. They are smaller than Churches and are less likely to be linked to the state nor claim a monopoly of truth. Cults are smaller groups that emphasise new or alternative beliefs and practices. They often claim to have special or unique insights into spirituality or the divine. e.g. Scientology.

Wilson

Highlights that there are some groups that are Established Sects. For example the Amish are a Christian Sect who because they have not aimed to convert others to their beliefs have maintained a distinct lifestyle that separates them from mainstream society. This can be used to criticise the concept of Denomination or Death

Denomination or Death

Niebuhr argues that as sects and cults grow they will either have to soften their beliefs and become denominations or they will die out. This can be linked to Stark & Bainbridge’s Sectarian Cycle theory.

Drane

Sociologist who discusses how the growth of the New Age is linked to the postmodern society and reflects a shift towards individualism and personal spirituality, moving away from traditional religious structures.

Gender & Religiosity

The relationship between gender and levels of religious belief and participation, often showing that women are more religious than men due to socialisation and differing roles within society.

Ethnicity & Religiosity

The relationships between ethnicity and levels of religious belief and participation, often showing that ethnic minorities are more religious than the white majority in the UK due to concepts like existential security theory, cultural defence and cultural transition.

Voas & Crockett

Highlight age differences in religiosity and how younger generations are less religious than older generations, attributing this trend to social change and secularisation.

Brusco

Discusses the ‘Pentecostal Gender Paradox’ in Colombia. It can be linked to religious forms of feminism and how, despite pentecostalism often being seen as stereotypically patriarchal, can appeal to women in some socieities because it can also empower and support them.

Popper

A Philosopher and Sociologist who discusses how Religion (and Marxism) are closed belief systems, whereas Science is an open belief system. This means that science is open to being challenged.

Merton

Highlights how science is an open belief system because it abides by CUDOs Norms (Communism, Universalism, Disinterestedness and Organised Scepticism).

Kuhn

A Philosopher and Sociologist who critiques the idea that Science is an open belief system. He takes the view that science is actually a closed belief system as it does not allow for paradigm shifts without significant resistance. This challenges the notion of objective progress in scientific knowledge.

Gellner

A sociologist who emphasises the importance of nationalism as an ideology and how it functions as a modern belief system, linking cultural identity to social cohesion.