Option G- Urban Environments (from notes) (copy)

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informal/formal activities

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36 Terms

1

informal/formal activities

activities that are either:

  • untaxed and unregulated, or

  • formally taxed and regulated

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2

Gentrification

improvement of residential areas by residents and immigrants, often changes the economic profile of an area and makes it inaccessible for its initial residents

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3

counter-urbanisation

the movement of population away from larger to smaller urban areas (eg new towns, satellite suburbs)

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4

re-urbanisation/urban renewal

development of activities to increase residential population densities within a preexisting city

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5

urban circular system

a sustainable city in which there is the recycling, reuse and reduction of resources, renewable energy and reduced ecological footprint

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6

suburbanisation

the outward growth of towns to engulf surrounding settlements; may cause a conurbation

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7

urban area

built up area that forms part of a city or town

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8

urban ecological footprint

the amount of land required to sustain a population with appropriate resources and assimilate their waste

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9

characteristics of an urban settlement

an area of habituation that provides services for payment for the surrounding countryside

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10

physical factors influencing site

  • access to water

  • hospitable climate

  • agriculture → arable/fertile land

  • topography

  • space (defence, expansion)

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11

functions and land use

  • accomodation

  • mining town

  • transport hub

  • manufacturing centre

  • fishing village

  • administrative centre

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12

Urban layout case study

New York

  • commercial land in manhattan, centre of queens and staten island

  • brooklyn, manhattan and the bronx have mixed residential and commercial

  • staten island, bronx, outside queens is industry and manufacturing

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13

Hierarchy of Settlements

measured by settlement size, generated wealth and number of jobs

  • hinterland is the hexagonal area around a city that is supported by it

  • distance decay- people will travel less far for lower quality goods

sphere of influence- where people come from to buy things

  • threshold population- amount of people to support a shop

  • low order goods- bought frequently eg food

  • high order goods- bought less often eg appliances

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14

Megacities

> 10 million people

  • economic growth, rural-urban migration

  • dominated by young adults due to birth rates

  • contain 7% of world’s population

  • all but four megacities in developing regions, 12 in china, 34 megacities in 2020

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15

The Burgess Model

1925

assumptions

  • city is flat

  • easy transport

  • high land value in city centre

  • oldest buildings in city centre

  • poorer classes must live near work

criticisms

  • zones undefined, not mixed

  • oldest housing not always in centre

  • cities rarely boundless or flat

<p>1925</p><p>assumptions</p><ul><li><p>city is flat</p></li><li><p>easy transport</p></li><li><p>high land value in city centre</p></li><li><p>oldest buildings in city centre</p></li><li><p>poorer classes must live near work</p></li></ul><p>criticisms</p><ul><li><p>zones undefined, not mixed</p></li><li><p>oldest housing not always in centre</p></li><li><p>cities rarely boundless or flat</p></li></ul>
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16

The Hoyt Model

1939

assumptions

  • wealthy live near transport

  • cars affordable

  • similar land = similar land use

  • certain functions repel each other

criticisms

  • low cost housing doesn’t guarantee transport

  • no planning controls

  • discounts suburbs

  • discounts topography

<p>1939</p><p>assumptions</p><ul><li><p>wealthy live near transport</p></li><li><p>cars affordable</p></li><li><p>similar land = similar land use</p></li><li><p>certain functions repel each other</p></li></ul><p>criticisms</p><ul><li><p>low cost housing doesn’t guarantee transport</p></li><li><p>no planning controls</p></li><li><p>discounts suburbs</p></li><li><p>discounts topography</p></li></ul>
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17

Harn and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model

1945

assumptions

  • cbd is near original retail

  • warehousing/light industry adjacent to cbd

  • heavy industry on outskirts

  • residential in remaining space

criticisms

  • may not apply to asia

  • non existence of abrupt divisions

  • negligence of building height

<p>1945</p><p>assumptions</p><ul><li><p>cbd is near original retail</p></li><li><p>warehousing/light industry adjacent to cbd</p></li><li><p>heavy industry on outskirts</p></li><li><p>residential in remaining space</p></li></ul><p>criticisms</p><ul><li><p>may not apply to asia</p></li><li><p>non existence of abrupt divisions</p></li><li><p>negligence of building height</p></li></ul>
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18

Bid rent theory

  • peak land value intersection- point closest to cbd (0,0 on graph)

  • model shows pattern of economic activity

  • land closer to the cbd is owned by more competitive industries such as retail, while less competitive industries operate on the outskirts

  • land closest to cbd = highest profit = most valuable

<ul><li><p>peak land value intersection- point closest to cbd (0,0 on graph)</p></li><li><p>model shows pattern of economic activity</p></li><li><p>land closer to the cbd is owned by more competitive industries such as retail, while less competitive industries operate on the outskirts</p></li><li><p>land closest to cbd = highest profit = most valuable</p></li></ul>
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19

factors affecting location of residential areas

physical factors

  • location of land features eg mountains

  • aesthetic beauty and closeness to nature

  • proximity to services

  • closeness to cbd

land values

  • high density in medium closeness: too close = expensive, too far = not valuable

  • high quality housing is newly built on the outskirts - lower class needs to be close to cbd to find work

  • suburban density decreased since 1980s

ethnicity

  • ethnic groups live together to seek cultural support and community

  • waves of migration happening at the same time, move to new developments - becomes a hub for that culture

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20

urban deprivation

  • physical indicators - housing quality, pollution, crime

  • social indicators- health crime, education, unemployment, lone parent families

  • economic indices- available jobs, income

  • political indices- voting, community action

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21

slums and squatter settlements

  • 980 million slum dwellers globally in 2015

  • 78.2% of urban population is in LICs

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22

informal economic activity

  • dual economy- formal economy and informal economy

  • informal economy

    • bazaar economy- small scale trade establishments, 45% of city employment, low price competition

    • street economy- hawkers, shoe shiners, beggars, thieves, prostitutes, 20% of labour force, low earnings

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23

Urban social deprivation case study

Dharavi

  • 45% of Mumbai lives in slums

  • 1 million people live in Dharavi- 175 hectares

  • tin shacks, tarp/tin roofs, upgrading to brick

  • many have successful businesses or careers

  • markets, tourism, personal small businesses eg laundry

  • formal and informal economy

  • average $3 per day- cheap to outsource here

  • recycling in Mumbai

  • only slum with a billion dollar economy

  • water flows for 2h a day, but most homes have electricity, public toilets

  • authorities turn a blind eye to environmental waste

  • free state education till 14

  • high sense of community

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24

Centrifugal population movements

away from city centre

  • suburbanisation

  • counter-urbanisation

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25

Rural Urban migration

  • urbanisation- more people moving to urban areas

  • natural increase- birth rate is higher than death rate

  • push factors- lack of services, jobs

  • pull factors- more services, jobs

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26

Rural Urban Migration Case Study

China

  • male family members move to cities and send money home to family

  • labour jobs with low education

  • close to 1 billion Chinese live in urban areas in 2030s

  • Hukou arrangement- people must stay in certain provinces to access rights and services, registered by household

  • many villages demolishes to urbanise, removes jobs for farmers

  • 70% of China will live in cities if the govt hits its goal

  • urban consumers feed city conglomerates

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27

deindustrialisation

caused by:

  • resources exhausted, materials expensive

  • automation/new technology

  • competition from rivals/reduction in demand

  • lack of capital, subsidy withdrawal

  • rationalisation- making things more efficient drains company of self sufficiency

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28

Urban Social Deprivation/Deindustrialisation Case Study

Detroit’s Vehicle Industry

  • Packard Auto Plant - 3.5 million square feet, 36000 employed

  • closed in 1958 due to reduced demand, increased cost (globalisation; competition)

  • 2 million population in 1958 has steadily declined since

  • riots in 1967 due to joblessness and suburbanisation

  • cleanup crews salvage from abandoned lots

  • yet, people don’t always report the good

Cycle of Urban Deprivation in Detroit

social + emotional deprivation → lack of education → poor work opportunities → poor relationships → inadequate parenting → inadequate support measures → social + emotional deprivation

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29

Urban microclimates

  • distinctive climate of a small scale area

  • affected by:

    • radiation and sunshine- scattered by dust

    • clouds and fogs

    • temperatures- regulation, sun/shade

    • pressure and winds- gusting around tall buildings

    • humidity

    • precipitation

  • urban air pollution- impacts 50% of world’s urban population

    • cars and industry

    • LICs cannot cope as well

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30

Urban heat island effect

heat increases due to dark roads and roofs absorbing heat, lack of tree cover, emissions of dust and gas

<p>heat increases due to dark roads and roofs absorbing heat, lack of tree cover, emissions of dust and gas</p>
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31

Case Study: Contested Land

Slum Clearance in Rio

  • 2016 olympics caused the clearance of central favelas to make space for the grounds

  • drug gangs removed

  • average house price rose by 165% between 2012-2016

  • 170,000 people displaced- Favela de Metro 1000 residents displaced for parking

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32

Urban Growth Projections

  • countries in Africa predicted to grow most, along with Southeast Asia

  • many large countries reaching maximum population and growth is starting to slow

  • Global population expected to max out at 11 billion in 2100

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33

Resilient cities

  • economically productive- employment

  • socially inclusive- mobility, living space

  • environmentally friendly- climate change adaptation/mitigation, footprint

    • copes with acute and chronic threats

if not: social unrest, environmental damage, high emissions, low gdp, high unemployment, congestion, homelessness

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Threats to cities

Chronic

  • overtaxation

  • inefficient politicians

  • unemployment, violence,

  • resource shortages and waste disposal

Acute

  • natural disasters

  • disease

  • terrorism

  • war

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35

Eco Cities

  • compact cities = less congestion, overpricing, pollution

  • achieved by

    • reducing fossil fuels

    • locally treating waste

    • sufficient green spaces

    • reclaiming brownfield spaces

    • encouraging community involvement

    • conserving non-renewables, using renewables

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36

Case Study: Eco Cities

Masdar, UAE

  • capital of United Arab Emirates

  • no cars- parked outside, trains used

  • 150 live there, ideally 90,000

  • Masdar Institute = graduate research facility

  • light management, air compression to cope with dry climate

  • oriented 45 degrees off sun = 15 degrees cooler than Abu Dhabi

  • concentrated solar panels using mirrors to capture more sun

  • motion sensors, water recycling

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