ENG201: Terms

Myth:

Definition: a socially powerful traditional story that helps explain existence, meaning, and human experience. Often tied to religion or belief system
Example: Armstrong explaining that early humans created myths to give life meaning and explain suffering aor chaos

Folktale:

Definition: storytelling focused on entertainment and adventure.
Example: includes common motifs (like a clever hero or monster)
Highway - laughing with the trickster

Classical mythology:

definition: The body of myths from ancient Greece and Rome, developed over centuries and tied to religion, ritual, and storytelling traditions
Example: polytheism

polytheism:

definition: belif in multiple gods
Example: Greek mythology/Hinduism vs. Christianity/islam

Palimpsest:

definition: myths are layered and rewritten over time
New meanings build on older interpretations, allowing myths to stay relevant across periods
Ex: Orpheus shifts from a religious figure to a tragic lover

Hero Archetype

central figure who faces challenges
represents cultural values (bravery, intelligence)
often undergoes a journey or transformation
example: Theseus and Perseus overcoming obstacles

Sophocles

ancient Greek tragedian; one of the three major playwrights whose works survive; known for complex characters and moral conflict; example: wrote Antigone, which explores law vs duty

Antigone (Character)

protagonist who defies state law to follow divine law; represents loyalty to family and moral conviction; challenges authority; example: buries Polyneices despite Creon’s decree

Creon (Character)

king of Thebes who represents state authority and human law; values order and loyalty to the polis; his rigidity leads to tragedy; example: forbids burial of Polyneices and punishes Antigone

Ismene

Antigone’s sister who represents caution and obedience; prioritizes survival and social norms; contrasts Antigone; example: refuses to help bury Polyneices at first

Haemon

Creon’s son and Antigone’s fiancé; represents moderation and reason; challenges Creon’s authority; example: argues that public opinion supports Antigone

The House of Thebes

royal family central to the myth cycle; marked by curse and tragedy; provides background to Antigone; example: includes Oedipus, Antigone, Polyneices, and Creon

Backstory (Antigone)

events before the play that shape conflict; includes war between Eteocles and Polyneices; explains Creon’s decree; example: both brothers kill each other, leading to burial conflict

Underworld

realm of the dead in Greek belief; tied to burial rituals and remembrance; reflects views on death and honour; example: improper burial in Antigone offends gods and dishonours the dead

Oppositions

structural contrasts that organize the play’s themes; highlight moral and ideological conflict; central to interpretation; example: polis vs oikos, human law vs divine law

Gender Roles (Ancient Greece)

strict expectations limiting women to private sphere; informs character conflict; shapes power dynamics; example: Ismene argues women should not oppose men, while Antigone defies this

Translation

process of interpreting Greek text into modern language; affects meaning and tone; highlights variability of interpretation; example: different translations of Antigone’s opening address to Ismene

Hero

a central figure in myth who performs extraordinary actions that reflect cultural values and tensions, often involving struggle, suffering, or transformation example Prometheus as a rebellious figure who defies Zeus for humanity

Edith Hamilton

a modern classicist whose retellings of Greek mythology shaped contemporary understanding of myths through a Western lens example her book Mythology (1942) used as a key reference for stories like Perseus and Theseus

Eurocentrism

an approach that centers European history and culture as dominant, often excluding or minimizing other perspectives example interpreting Greek myth as the “origin” of Western civilization while ignoring African and Near Eastern influences

Black Athena

Martin Bernal’s argument that ancient Greek civilization has African and Near Eastern roots, challenging Eurocentric narratives example the claim that Egypt and Phoenicia influenced Greek culture rather than it being purely Indo-European

Myth of whiteness

the modern misconception that ancient Greeks saw themselves as racially “white,” used to support Western racial ideologies example classical sculptures being presented as white marble despite originally being painted

Subversive mythmaking

reinterpreting or blending myths to challenge dominant ideologies like colonialism or Eurocentrism example Beyoncé imagery reworking Botticelli’s Birth of Venus to center Black identity

Chaos

the primordial void or state of nothingness from which creation begins in Greek mythology example the origin state before gods and Titans exist

Titans

an older generation of gods who precede the Olympians and are overthrown by them example Cronus (Saturn) as a Titan defeated in the Titanomachy

Titanomachy

the war between the Olympian gods and the Titans that establishes Zeus’s rule example Zeus defeating the Titans and imprisoning them

Prometheus

a Titan who creates or helps humanity and defies Zeus by giving humans fire, symbolizing knowledge and technology example stealing fire and being punished by having his liver eaten daily

Pandora

the first woman in Greek myth whose actions introduce suffering into the human world example opening the jar (box) that releases evils into humanity

Prometheus Bound

a play by Aeschylus that portrays Prometheus as a suffering benefactor of humanity example Prometheus describing how he gave humans knowledge like numbers and language

Promethean hero

a type of hero characterized by rebellion, intelligence, creativity, and suffering for humanity example Prometheus as a trickster figure who challenges divine authority

Technology (myth context)

a gift to humanity that represents both progress and danger, often tied to transgression against the gods example fire from Prometheus enabling civilization but angering Zeus

Perseus

a Greek hero who fulfills a prophecy, slays Medusa, and rescues Andromeda, embodying the classical heroic quest example using divine tools from Hermes and Athena to defeat Medusa

Andromeda

a princess sacrificed due to her mother’s hubris, later rescued by Perseus example chained to a rock as an offering to appease the gods

Theseus

an Athenian hero known for defeating the Minotaur and establishing political order example entering the labyrinth and killing the Minotaur

Folktale motif

a recurring narrative element or pattern found across myths and stories example magical helpers or heroic quests appearing in Perseus’ story

Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index

a classification system used to categorize folktales based on recurring motifs and structures example grouping stories like Cinderella under shared narrative patterns

Ship of Theseus

a philosophical paradox questioning identity and change over time example whether a ship remains the same after all its parts are replaced

Joseph Campbell

a scholar who developed a comparative theory of myth focused on universal narrative structures example The Hero with a Thousand Faces outlining shared patterns in myths

Monomyth / Hero’s journey

a universal narrative structure where a hero leaves, undergoes trials, and returns transformed example Perseus leaving home, defeating Medusa, and returning with glory

Call to adventure

the moment when the hero is presented with a challenge that disrupts ordinary life example Perseus being tasked with killing Medusa

Meeting the mentor

when the hero receives guidance or tools to face the journey example Athena and Hermes aiding Perseus

Tests, allies, enemies

the phase where the hero encounters challenges and builds relationships in the “special world” example Perseus facing monsters and gaining magical items

The ordeal

the central crisis where the hero faces death or greatest fear example Perseus confronting Medusa directly

Return with the elixir

the hero returns home with knowledge or power that benefits society example Perseus returning with Medusa’s head and saving Andromeda

Criticisms of Campbell

arguments that his theory ignores cultural differences and reinforces biased perspectives example claims that his model is Eurocentric and patriarchal

Le Guin’s critique

a rejection of traditional hero narratives in favor of stories about ordinary people and collective experience example preferring “people” over violent, individualistic heroes

Pygmalion

sculptor from Greek myth who creates an ideal woman and falls in love with his own creation, representing themes of art, control, and desire example: he carves a statue (later called Galatea) and prays for it to come to life

Galatea

the statue brought to life by Aphrodite, representing the idealized female figure shaped by male desire example: she transforms from ivory into a living woman when Pygmalion’s wish is granted

Ovid

Roman poet who records the Pygmalion myth in Metamorphoses, emphasizing transformation and desire example: describes the statue warming “like wax in the sun” as it becomes human

Metamorphoses

Ovid’s collection of myths centered on transformation (physical and symbolic) example: Galatea’s transformation from statue to woman fits the theme of change

transformation

key motif where characters change form or state, often reflecting deeper psychological or social meaning example: the statue becoming human represents desire turning into reality

idealization

the process of creating a perfect or unrealistic version of something, often tied to control or fantasy example: Pygmalion designs Galatea to match his ideal woman

male gaze

concept where women are depicted as objects shaped by male desire and perspective example: Galatea exists primarily as Pygmalion’s creation and object of admiration

objectification

treating a person as an object without agency or autonomy example: Galatea begins as a literal object created for Pygmalion’s pleasure

creator vs creation

theme exploring power dynamics between maker and made example: Pygmalion controls Galatea’s existence before she becomes autonomous

art and reality

tension between artistic creation and lived experience example: Pygmalion prefers his artificial statue over real women

divine intervention

role of gods in transforming or resolving human situations example: Aphrodite grants life to the statue in response to Pygmalion’s prayer

Aphrodite/Venus

goddess of love who brings Galatea to life, symbolizing desire and creative power example: she answers Pygmalion’s prayer during her festival

Pygmalion effect

psychological concept where expectations shape outcomes example: Pygmalion’s belief in his ideal woman leads to her “creation” and transformation

“Born Sexy Yesterday” trope

modern narrative trope where a female character is naïve yet sexually idealized example: Galatea is created as perfect and inexperienced, fitting this pattern

makeover trope

narrative where transformation into an ideal version leads to acceptance or love example: Galatea’s literal transformation into a living woman fulfills Pygmalion’s desire

mad scientist trope

modern adaptation where a creator attempts to control life or create perfection example: parallels between Pygmalion and figures like Dr. Frankenstein

adaptation (My Fair Lady)

modern retelling of the Pygmalion myth focusing on transformation and social class example: Eliza Doolittle is “reshaped” into a refined lady

George Bernard Shaw

playwright who adapted the myth into Pygmalion, critiquing class and gender roles example: Eliza resists being controlled by Professor Higgins

agency

the ability of a character to act independently and make choices example: later adaptations give Galatea or Eliza more autonomy than in the original myth

power dynamics

relationships structured by control, authority, and dependence example: Pygmalion holds power over Galatea as her creator

consent

modern critical lens examining whether relationships are mutual or imposed example: Galatea’s lack of voice raises questions about her ability to consent

fetishization

excessive admiration or fixation on an object or trait example: Pygmalion’s obsession with the statue over real women

artificial vs real

contrast between constructed perfection and authentic humanity example: Pygmalion values the artificial statue over flawed real women

modern reinterpretation

reworking myths to critique or update their themes example: feminist readings challenge the objectification of Galatea

Demeter

goddess of grain and harvest, representing motherhood, fertility, and the sustaining force of life example: Demeter causes famine when Persephone is taken, showing her power over agriculture

Persephone

daughter of Demeter associated with both life (spring) and death (underworld), embodying dual identity example: she spends part of the year in the underworld and part on earth, explaining the seasons

Hades

god of the underworld who abducts Persephone and governs the realm of the dead example: he compels Persephone to eat pomegranate seeds so she must return

Homeric Hymn to Demeter

primary ancient source of the myth that frames Persephone’s abduction and Demeter’s grief example: the hymn explains both the origin of agriculture and seasonal cycles

abduction myth

a narrative where a female figure is taken, often reflecting themes of power, control, and transition example: Persephone’s abduction by Hades initiates her transformation into queen of the underworld

pomegranate symbolism

the fruit that binds Persephone to the underworld, symbolizing desire, knowledge, and irreversible change example: eating the seeds forces her cyclical return to Hades

seasonal cycle myth

myth explaining natural cycles like growth and decay through divine narrative example: Demeter’s grief causes winter, Persephone’s return brings spring

Eleusinian Mysteries

secret religious rituals centered on Demeter and Persephone promising hope in the afterlife example: initiates reenact Demeter’s journey and believe they gain better fate after death

kykeon

ritual drink used in the Eleusinian Mysteries, associated with transformation and revelation example: participants drink a barley-based mixture linked to Demeter’s myth

mystery religion

a religious system involving secret rites and initiation promising spiritual insight example: the Eleusinian Mysteries offer knowledge about life, death, and rebirth

allegorical reading

interpreting myth as symbolic of broader concepts like life cycles or social structures example: Demeter and Persephone representing death and rebirth or mother–daughter relationships

coming-of-age myth

interpretation of Persephone’s story as a transition from girlhood to adulthood example: her movement to the underworld reflects entering maturity and independence

matriarchy vs patriarchy

tension between female-centered power (Demeter) and male authority (Zeus/Hades) example: Persephone’s fate is decided by male gods despite Demeter’s resistance

modern adaptation (Lore Olympus)

contemporary retelling that reinterprets myth through modern relationships and themes example: the webcomic portrays Persephone and Hades with more agency and emotional complexity

Rita Dove

contemporary American poet who reimagines classical myths to explore modern identity, gender, and trauma example: Mother Love retells the Demeter/Persephone myth through a modern lens

Mother Love

poetry collection by Rita Dove that reinterprets the Demeter and Persephone myth using modern voice and sonnet variations example: explores themes of motherhood, separation, and female experience

sonnet form

a structured 14-line poetic form traditionally associated with order and harmony, often subverted in Dove’s work example: Dove uses sonnet-like structures but breaks rhyme to reflect chaos and trauma

Persephone’s agency

reinterpretation of Persephone as having choice or desire rather than being purely a victim example: Dove suggests she may have chosen to eat the seeds and remain in the underworld

trauma and violence

theme exploring the psychological impact of abduction and separation, especially for women example: Dove’s poems emphasize fear, loss, and emotional fragmentation

mother-daughter relationship

central emotional dynamic exploring attachment, loss, and independence example: Demeter’s grief reflects a parent’s inability to protect their child forever

modernization of myth

blending ancient stories with contemporary language and settings to make them relevant example: Dove incorporates modern warnings (“don’t talk to strangers”) into Persephone’s story

tragedy and inevitability

idea that suffering may be unavoidable but meaningful example: Persephone’s descent and return cycle reflects unavoidable change and loss

healing and consolation

exploration of whether recovery from trauma is possible example: Demeter’s later acceptance suggests partial healing rather than full resolution
Cupid/Eros

Psyche

mortal woman whose name means “soul” or “breath,” representing both a character and a symbolic figure example: Psyche’s journey and trials reflect the development of the human soul

Apuleius

Roman author of The Golden Ass who records the Cupid and Psyche myth as a story-within-a-story example: his version includes sensual and detailed elements like Psyche pricking herself with Cupid’s arrow

folktale motif

a recurring narrative element or pattern that appears across many stories and traditions example: the “forbidden curiosity” motif when Psyche looks at Cupid despite being told not to

ATU Index

classification system (Aarne-Thompson-Uther) used to categorize folktales based on shared patterns example: Cupid and Psyche aligns with “Animal Bridegroom” tale types like Beauty and the Beast

Animal Bridegroom

folktale type where a woman marries a mysterious or non-human partner example: Psyche unknowingly marries Cupid, similar to Belle and the Beast

forbidden knowledge/curiosity

theme where a character is punished for seeking hidden truth example: Psyche lights the lamp to see Cupid and loses him as a result

allegory

interpretation of a story as an extended metaphor with symbolic meanings beyond the literal narrative example: reading Psyche as the human soul and Cupid as divine love or desire