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wednesday, march 12th, 2025
social problem
any condition or behavior that has negative consequences for large numbers of people and that is generally recognized as a condition or behavior that needs to be addressed.
social imagination (wright mills)
The ability to understand the connection between individual experiences and larger social forces, seeing how personal issues are shaped by societal structures.
functionalism
examines the functions or consequences of the structure of society. macro perspective, focusing on how society creates and maintains social order. essentially how does the social problem emerge from society? does the social problem serve a function?
conflict theory
society is held together by norms, values, and common morality, those holding conflict perspective consider how society is held together by power or coercion for the benefit for those in power.
social problems emerge from the continuing conflict between groups in out society - based on social class, gender, race, or ethnicity and in the conflict, the dominant groups win.
symbolic interaction
through our interaction, social problem are created and defined. more than any other perspective, interactionalist stress human agency - the active role of individuals in creating their social environment.
social stratification
the lifestyle that people in a society are ranked based on factors such as wealth, power, and status. this is due to the inequality distribution of resources and opportunities.
absolute poverty
refers to the lack of resources necessary for well-being most important food and water, but also housing, sanitation, education, and health care.
extreme poverty
widely used standard to measure extreme poverty at the global level is a daily income level of $2.15 or less in income per day.
relative poverty
refers to the lack of material and economic resources compared with some other population.
measuring poverty
in 1964, the social security administration devised a poverty index based on data indicating that families spend about one-third of their income on food. the official poverty level was set by multiplying food cost by three. it is updated annually due to inflation and differs by the number of adults and children in a household and by the age of the head of household.
the poverty line
individuals: $14,580
family of 2: $19,720
family of 3: $24,860
family of 4: $30,000
family of 5: $35,140
who are the poor?
10.5% of the population living in poverty represent many people across different types of family structures, races, ages, and personal situations. for many people in poverty is a short-term event cause by a single, temporary crisis, such as job loss. for others it is a long/term event. most typically poor people in the United States are non-Latino whites.
social patterns of poverty
race and ethnicity: poverty rates are higher among people who are a minority and non-Hispanic whites. some factors are the loss of manufacturing jobs as well as the movement of whites and middle class black out of the inner city. blacks and Hispanics are also more likely to live in female-lead household, which have a higher chance of poverty.
gender: women are more like to become poor compared to men. these factors are unmarried women with children, lack of economic resources for women, as well as divorces as their income and standard of living tends to fall dramatically.
age: one in five children within the United States live in poverty. this is an issues as growing up in poverty cast a shadow over the rest of a person’s life.
region: the highest rates of poverty are found in the South and West and the lowest rate is the Northeast. EX: 2015 8.2% poverty rate in New Hampshire where as 24% poverty rate in Mississipi. the number of suburban poor surpasses the number of urban poor in the 2000s.
family structure: poverty rates tend to differ here however poverty is much more common among female-headed single parent households than other structures. this is due to women generally having lower incomes than men.
sociological theories on poverty
functionalism: political, economic, and educational institutions are not functioning adequately (often because of rapid social change), so that old arrangement are obsolete before new arrangements are in place.
conflict theory: the upper and middle classes oppress and exploit the poor through as such things as using political and economic institutions for their own benefit and creating ideologies that blame the poor and justify their poverty.
symbolic interaction: poverty became a social problem in the united states when people accepted the influential media’s definition of it as such, people remain poor when they define their poverty as the result of their own deficiencies.
sociological theories on social problems
functionalism: problems arise out of social disorganization, a state in which consensus about norms has broken down.
conflict theory: problem are the result of dominance over, and exploitation of, some groups by others.
symbolic interaction: a situation or form of behavior becomes a problem when people define it as such.
social structural factors of poverty
bear upon the problem of poverty include the institutional arrangement of government, economic, family, and education.
government: distribution of power - the people who control the wealth are among the most powerful, whereas the poor are among the most powerless in America. as a result, governmental decisions typically reflect the interest of the well-to-do rather than of the poor.
poverty and economy: the american economy works for the rich and against the poor un various ways. a capitalist economy is supported by government policies, allows concentration of wealth.
patterns of family life: family size; children of well off families grow up with more advantages compared with those of the poor.
education and poverty: one of the best insurance policies for protecting an individual against living in poverty. one with high-educational achievement is less likely to be poor. the relationship between education and poverty points out the need for accessible and quality education for all.
why does poverty presist?
there is a individualistic, structural, and cultural explanations:
individualistic: poverty is the result of laziness or lack of motivation, those who are poor only have themselves to blame. reinforces the idea that the U.S. is a land of meritocracy, and hard work comes with financial rewards.
structural explanation: assumes that poverty is the result of economic or social imbalance within the social structure that restrict opportunities from some individuals.
cultural explanation: argues that a “culture of poverty” arise among people who experience extended period of economic deprivation.
5 factors of poverty and myths about poverty
Factors
Lack of Education: Limited access to education reduces job opportunities.
Unemployment: Lack of stable jobs leads to financial insecurity.
Low Wages: Even with employment, low-paying jobs may not meet basic needs.
Health Issues: Illness or disability can prevent work and lead to high medical costs.
Discrimination: Race, gender, and other forms of discrimination limit opportunities and resources.
Myths
Poverty is caused by laziness: Many poor individuals work hard but still struggle due to low wages or unstable jobs.
Poor people don't want to work: Many face barriers to employment such as discrimination or lack of skills.
Poverty is only in certain areas: Poverty exists in both urban and rural areas, affecting diverse populations.
Welfare dependency is widespread: Most people in poverty don't rely on welfare long-term and prefer employment.
Poverty is a personal failure: Structural factors like economic policies and discrimination play a major role in creating poverty.
racial wealth gap
the absolute difference in wealth holding between the median household among populations grouped by race or ethnicity. in the U.S. the gap shows that the typical white household hold multiple times the wealth of black and latino households.
race
A social construct that categorizes people based on physical characteristics such as skin color, facial features, and hair texture. While not scientifically valid, race is used to group people in ways that often influence social, economic, and political experiences.
ethnicity
A social category based on shared cultural traits, such as language, traditions, customs, and beliefs. Unlike race, ethnicity is tied more to cultural identity and heritage rather than physical characteristics
income inequality by race, ethnicity, and gender
Income inequality in the U.S. is influenced by race and ethnicity, with Asians having the highest median earnings, followed by whites, blacks, and Latinos. The largest income gap exists between Asian men ($1,147 weekly) and Latina women ($595 weekly). The gender income gap is also significant within racial groups, with Asian men earning 26% more than Asian women.
Earning Gap: Differences in annual earnings among groups.
Wage Gap: Differences in hourly wages.
land ownership after slavery
one main resources blacks are unable to build their wealth has been the creation of housing segregation within U.S. cities. residential segregation happens when different groups of people are sorted into distinct neighborhoods. urban residential segregation in the united states was created in the early twentieth century.
the creation of residential segregation
Residential segregation resulted from three factors: racial violence by whites, discriminatory real estate practices, and federal housing programs that favored whites.
Racial Violence: Whites used violence (e.g., cross burning, mob attacks) to prevent blacks from moving into white neighborhoods.
Racially Restrictive Covenants: Real estate contracts in the 1920s excluded non-whites from owning or renting in many neighborhoods. These were made illegal by the Fair Housing Act of 1968.
Federal Housing Administration (FHA): Established in 1934, the FHA favored white homebuyers, offering low-interest loans and creating policies that made housing more accessible for whites, but less so for blacks. This led to a widening wealth gap between white and black families.
how was the racial wealth gap created?
was created through a combination of historical, social, and economic factors that have disproportionately disadvantaged people of color, particularly Black and Indigenous communities. Key contributors include:
Slavery and Forced Labor: Enslaved Black people in the U.S. were denied property rights and wealth-building opportunities for centuries, creating a lasting disadvantage for their descendants.
Discriminatory Policies: Laws and policies like Jim Crow, redlining, and segregation systematically excluded Black and Indigenous people from access to quality education, housing, and jobs, preventing wealth accumulation.
Housing Discrimination: Practices like redlining, where banks and insurers denied services to people in predominantly Black or non-white neighborhoods, prevented these communities from gaining homeownership, which is a major means of wealth-building.
Unequal Education: Historical and ongoing disparities in educational opportunities and funding have limited economic mobility for many racial minorities, hindering their ability to acquire higher-paying jobs.
Labor Market Discrimination: Structural racism in the workplace, including hiring discrimination and unequal pay for equal work, has limited wealth accumulation opportunities for racial minorities.
Inheritance and Intergenerational Wealth: White families were historically able to accumulate wealth through land, property, and business ownership, which they passed down to future generations, while Black and other minority families faced systemic barriers preventing them from accumulating similar wealth.
wealth gap in the 21st century
inequalities among whites, blacks, and latinos are increasing over time. the wealth gap between blacks and whites had tripled his 1984 and 2009. Thomas Shapiro published a study ti explain why, based on their study of 1.700 household, these analysts attributed the wealth gap to five factors:
years of homeownership 27%
household income 20%
years of unemployment 9%
college education 5%
inheritance or financial support from family members 5%
reducing racial and ethnic inequality
Implement national full employment with job training and public works programs.
Increase federal aid for working poor (e.g., earned income credits, child-care subsidies).
Expand early childhood and adolescent intervention programs for low-income families.
Improve education and expand early childhood programs for poor children.
Provide better nutrition and health services for poor families.
Strengthen efforts to reduce teenage pregnancies.
Expand affirmative action within legal limits.
Enforce laws against racial and ethnic discrimination in hiring/promotion.
Reduce residential segregation.
income and labor market inequality: individual
Human capital: Higher education → higher income.
Discrimination: Earnings differences may be due to bias, not just skills.
Implicit bias: Unconscious judgments affecting decisions.
Categorical exclusion: Exclusion from job opportunities due to race.
Shifting standards: Different responses for applicants of different races, despite similar experience.
income and labor market inequality: cultural
Belief that minorities lack values like hard work or strong family ties, causing poverty.
Public perception: Many white people think Black poverty is due to lack of motivation.
Scholars' view: Little evidence of cultural problems; belief in deficiencies is symbolic racism, blaming the victim.
income and labor market inequality: structural explanations
Earnings disparities: Decline of manufacturing jobs in U.S. cities caused job loss.
Deindustrialization: Shift from manufacturing to service economy impacted all racial groups.
Union decline: Union jobs dropped from 35% in 1954 to 8% by 2008.
dimensions of racial disparities in the labor market
Disparities in earnings and wages are tied to many facets of the labor market.
-unemployment rates
-promotion practices
-employment stability
It is harder for people from some racial or ethnic groups to obtain jobs.
Some groups are less likely to receive promotion.
Some groups are less likely to be in stable employment.
natural history of social problems
Stage 1: Emergence and Claims Making
A social problem emerges when a social entity (e.g., social change group, media, politicians) calls attention to a condition or behavior seen as undesirable.
The entity attempts to influence public perceptions, reasons, and solutions regarding the problem.
This process is called "claims-making."
Not all efforts to make a condition a social problem succeed.
Some social entities (e.g., politicians, social change groups) are more likely to succeed.
Social change groups and movements often drive the emergence of social problems, especially through protests or political activity.
Stage 2: Legitimacy
After a social problem is recognized, the group seeks government action (local, state, or federal).
The group tries to persuade the government that their claims are legitimate and supported by empirical evidence.
Government action becomes more likely if the legitimacy of claims is convincing.
Stage 3: Renewed Claims Making
Even after government action, social change groups may feel the action is too limited.
The groups may reassert their claims and criticize the government or other established entities (e.g., businesses) for inadequate responses.
Tension often arises between the groups and the targets of their claims.
Stage 4: Development of Alternative Strategies
If government and established interests do not respond adequately, social change groups may create their own strategies to address the social problem.
Social Construction View
Many negative conditions exist, but only some acquire the status of a social problem.
Some conditions do not become social problems unless citizens, policymakers, or other parties highlight them.
Example: Before the 1970s, rape and sexual assault were common but not considered a social problem. The feminist movement later turned sexual violence into a social problem.
social problems (the subjective component)
when enough people in a society agree that a condition exists that threatens the quality of their lives and their most cherished values, and they also agree that something should be done to remedy that condition.
social problems (objective component)
for any condition or behavior to be considered a social problem, it must have negative consequences for large numbers of people. in other words there would be bodies of data accumulated from the work of research, government agencies, and other sources that point to the serious consequences.
