Arch 217 - Architecture History Pre-History to Middle Ages

What changes accompanied the “Neolithic Revolution”? What was distinctive about cities like Çatal Hüyük compared with smaller settlements?

The Neolithic Revolution marked the shift from hunting and gathering to farming and animal domestication, leading to permanent settlements and population growth. People began developing new technologies, social hierarchies, and specialized occupations. Çatal Hüyük stood out as a large, densely built settlement with rich art, religion, and trade networks. It represented one of the earliest examples of complex urban life.

What were some of the possible meanings and uses of Neolithic monuments such as Newgrange and Stonehenge?

Neolithic monuments like Newgrange and Stonehenge likely served religious, ceremonial, and astronomical purposes. They may have been built to honor ancestors, mark seasonal changes like solstices, or serve as communal gathering places. Their alignment with the sun and other celestial events suggests a deep connection to agricultural cycles and cosmic beliefs. These monuments reflected both spiritual and social unity within early farming communities.

Gallery of Bulls. Lascaux, France

The Gallery of Bulls in Lascaux, France, is a large chamber within a Paleolithic cave complex featuring vivid paintings of bulls, horses, and other animals created around 15,000 BCE. These paintings likely held ritual or symbolic significance, possibly related to hunting magic or early spiritual beliefs.

Neolithic Age

The Neolithic Age, or New Stone Age, was the period when humans began farming, domesticating animals, and living in permanent settlements (around 10,000–3,000 BCE). It marked the transition from a nomadic, hunter-gatherer lifestyle to one based on agriculture and community life, leading to the rise of civilization.

Gobelki Tepe, Turkey

Worlds oldest known monumental temple complex. Has massive pillars with animals and abstract symbols

Çatal Höyük, Turkey

Neolithic city with complex economy (livestock, crops, trade). Located by water source. Mud and clay become popular building materials. Reappearance of game symbology. 

Dolmens at Carrowmore, Ireland.

Each dolmen consists of large upright stones supporting a flat capstone, forming a burial chamber that was often covered by a mound. They are part of one of the oldest and largest megalithic cemetery sites in Europe, used for communal burials and possibly ritual gatherings.

Newgrange, Ireland

Passage tombs. Stones came from thousands of miles away, showing that there was a centralized power structure overseeing this project. Has a cross shaped chamber inside. On winter solstice, the sun shines all the way through the passage. 

Stonehenge and its Environs, England

Large landscape of stone structures. Archaeologist found pig bones from miles away, meaning there could have been religious/ political sacrifices here. Alter stone from Orcadian Basin in Northeast Scotland. Heel stone seen as marker for sunrise on summer solstice, meaning the monument was a way of tracking lunar alignments. Stonehenge might have been a pilgrimage site. 

Functions of Stonehenge

Pilgrimage site, site for religious sacrifices, cremations, healing, tracking of solar and lunar alignment.

Mesopotamia

Land between two rivers, Tigris and Euphrates. Cradle of civilizations. Many cities popped up here and prospered based on shifting of the river. 

City-State of Ur

one of the city states in Mesopotamia

Stele of Ur-Nammu

Ur Nammu founded the third dynasty of of Ur. Stele (stone slab) depicts Ur Nammu making an offering to the moon god.

Ziggurat of Ur-Nammu

Main type of religious architecture. Interior is mud brick, exterior is fired brick. The different levels prob represent water, earth, and air. 

The Nile Valley

Kemet- the black (fertile land), Deshret- the red (desert)

Mastaba

Tombs found in Egypt. In the shape of a flat mound.

Pyramids at Giza

Orientation of placement align with Egyptian sacred cosmology. Each are a series of building → valley temple, causeway, mortuary temple, pyramid.

How did Egyptian architecture change from the Old Kingdom to the New Kingdom? Consider especially changes in function, meaning, and layout.

In the Old Kingdom, Egyptian architecture focused on pyramids that served as monumental tombs for divine kings, emphasizing the pharaoh’s afterlife and eternal power. By the New Kingdom, architecture shifted toward vast temple complexes, reflecting greater emphasis on religious worship and state ritual. Tombs became hidden in the Valley of the Kings, while temple layouts grew more axial and processional, symbolizing the connection between the pharaoh, gods, and the cosmos.

Compare and contrast an Egyptian pyramid with the Ziggurat of Ur. Consider form, function, material, meaning, and planning.

Egyptian pyramids and the Ziggurat of Ur were both monumental, stepped structures, but they differed greatly in purpose and symbolism. The Egyptian pyramid  was a tomb for a divine ruler, built of cut limestone with smooth sides symbolizing the rays of the sun, meant to help the pharaoh’s soul ascend to the afterlife. The Ziggurat of Ur, made of mudbrick, was a temple platform supporting a shrine to a god, functioning as a bridge between heaven and earth where priests performed rituals. While pyramids were carefully aligned and planned for eternal burial and cosmic order, ziggurats were tiered, functional temples integrated into city life and religious worship.

Temple of Amon-Ra. Karnak

Amon-Ra becomes primary deity. Religion expands to become rituals involving entire city. Temple has pylon, forecourt, hypostyle hall, and inner sanctuary

Hypostyle hall. Temple of Amon-Ra. Karnak

Hall with ornamental columns.

Obelisk of Hatshepsut. Temple of Amon-Ra. Karnak

Looks like the Washington monument. Honoring female pharaoh, legitimizes her rule. 

The Temple of Queen Hatshepsut

Primary function is monumental station for barque of Amun. Lower colonnade shows trading missions for exotic goods issued by Hatshepsut. 

How did Egyptian architecture change from the Old Kingdom to the New Kingdom? Consider especially changes in function, meaning, and layout.

In the Old Kingdom, Egyptian architecture centered on pyramids that served as monumental royal tombs, expressing the pharaoh’s divine power and focus on the afterlife. By the New Kingdom, architecture shifted toward massive temples like Karnak and Luxor, built to honor gods and host religious rituals rather than to house tombs. The layout changed from geometric pyramid complexes to axial, processional temple designs, while the royal tombs became hidden in the Valley of the Kings, reflecting new religious ideas about the afterlife and divine protection.

The Indus Ghaggar -Hakkra Civilization

Bronze age culture involved in large scale trading. Artifacts include standard weights, seals, a fine jewelry. 

What were some of the main characteristics of Mohenjo Daro in terms of types of buildings, materials, infrastructure, and organization?

Mohenjo-Daro, one of the major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, was highly planned and organized. Its buildings were made mainly of baked mudbrick, and the city was laid out on a grid pattern with wide streets dividing residential and public areas. It featured advanced infrastructure, including drainage systems, wells, and bathing facilities, showing concern for cleanliness and public health. Key structures included multi-story houses, granaries, and the Great Bath, reflecting a well-organized, urban society with centralized planning and civic amenities.

Crete and Minoan Culture

Minoans lived on the island of Crete and made large scale palaces. 

Palace at Knossos, Crete

Associated later on with Greek myth of Theseus and the Minotaur. Palaces was decorated with frescoes depicting precessions. Grand staircase was big red columns. Throne room is brightly colored and depicts natural elements. Queens Megaron is a precursor to the Greek and Roman temples. 

Compare and Contrast the architecture of Minoans vs Greeks

Minoan architecture (c. 2000–1400 BCE), seen at Knossos, featured large palace complexes with irregular layouts, open courtyards, columns that tapered downward, and vibrant frescoes. These structures served as administrative, religious, and residential centers, emphasizing fluidity, natural light, and connection to nature rather than strict symmetry. Greek architecture (c. 900–100 BCE) was more formal and symmetrical, focusing on temples built to honor gods, such as the Parthenon. It used stone and marble, followed strict proportions and orders (Doric, Ionic, Corinthian), and emphasized harmony, balance, and ideal beauty.

The Hittites

In Asia Minor, reaching parts of Mesopotamia.

Citadel at Hattusha, Turkey

Hattusha is the capital of the Hittites. The citadel was a a series of infrastructure and stone walls. 

Yazilikaya, Turkey

Open air sanctuary. Maybe the site of a fresh water spring. Stones have carvings of major 12 deities, but in total and has 63 gods representing more gods in Hittites pantheon. The carvings might have been used as a calendar. (12 lunar months, 30 figures for days, 19 year solar cycle.

Compara and contrast Hittites religious site of Yazilikaya and Neolithic structures of Newgrange and Stonehenge.

• Yazilikaya (c. 13th century BCE) was an open-air rock sanctuary near the Hittite capital, featuring carved reliefs of gods and kings on natural stone walls. It reflected a state religion focused on divine kingship and seasonal renewal, using natural rock formations as sacred space rather than built structures.

• Newgrange (c. 3200 BCE) in Ireland is a passage tomb made of earth and stone, aligned with the winter solstice sunrise, symbolizing rebirth and the cycle of life.

• Stonehenge (c. 3000–1500 BCE) in England consists of massive standing stones arranged in circular form, also aligned with solar events, likely used for astronomical and ritual gatherings.

First temple of Solomon, Jerusalem

Contained Ark of the Covenant. Used Egyptian style architecture. Site had no statues or imagery because of the unimaginableness of god. 

Second temple, Jerusalem

Rebuilt by King Harold. Roman emperor Titus destroys it.

Persepolis, Iran

Ceremonial court of King Darius. Cedar beams from Lebanon.

Compare and contrast Persepolis and Athens.

• Persepolis (c. 518–330 BCE), built by the Persian Empire, was a royal ceremonial complex designed to display the empire’s vast power and diversity. Constructed of stone and mudbrick on a massive terrace, it featured monumental palaces, audience halls (like the Apadana), and reliefs depicting subject peoples bringing tribute, emphasizing imperial unity and authority.

• Athens, especially in the 5th century BCE, reflected the ideals of Greek democracy and civic pride, centered on the Acropolis with temples like the Parthenon dedicated to Athena. Built of marble, Athenian architecture emphasized balance, proportion, and human-centered harmony, celebrating citizenship and divine patronage rather than royal power.

Gate of All Nations

Big stone portal. Llamasu sculpture to represent kingsmanship.

Stairway to Apadana

In Persopolis. Relief shows guards and delegations of Nawruz festival.

What was the origins of the Greek temple?

Temples serve as a primary site for worship and civic activity in ancient Greece, originating from simple open-air altars and evolving into complex structures adorned with columns and sculptures.

Compare and contrast the architecture of the Minoans with the Greeks

Minoan architecture was characterized by elaborate palaces with complex layouts, vibrant frescoes, and a focus on light and space, while Greek architecture evolved to emphasize symmetry, proportionality, and the use of columns, particularly in temples dedicated to the gods.

Doric Order

The Doric Order is one of the classical orders of ancient Greek architecture, characterized by its sturdy, fluted columns and simple, unadorned capitals, often used in temples and public buildings.

Basilica (Temple of Hera I) Paestum, Italy

An ancient Greek temple in Paestum, Italy, showcasing early examples of the Doric Order with distinct columns and stylobate.

Ionic Order

The Ionic Order is another classical order of ancient Greek architecture, known for its slender, fluted columns and distinctive scroll-like volutes on the capitals, often used in temples and other significant structures.

Temple of Artemis. Ephesos, Turkey

Ionic Temple along Ionian coast

Corinthian Order

Common in Hellenistic age, often combined with Ionic order

Temple of Apollo. Bassare, Greece

Site of first Corinthian order. Experimental in many ways— not oriented towards other views, layout focus towards a singular Corinthian column in the cella. Singular column represents Apollo himself.

The Polis

Common characteristics between city states. Temples, agoras, public buildings, fortifications, and rights for male, property owning citizens.

Temple of Hephaistos. Athens

Classic Doric temple by the agora

Theatre of Dionysus. Athens

Prototypical Greek theater, located at the foot of the Acropolis.

Pnyx, Athens

Athenians assemble at the flat area atop the Pnyx, a hill to the south of the agora. Represents democracy and equal rights to speak on policy

The Acropolis

settlement atop hill in Athens with famous temples

What political meanings did the rebuilding of the Acropolis have?

The rebuilding of the Acropolis symbolized Athens’s recovery and triumph after the Persian Wars, transforming destruction into a lasting monument of strength. Funded largely by the Delian League, it displayed Athens’s imperial power and celebrated the success of its democracy under Pericles. The new temples honored Athena while asserting Athens’s leadership, wealth, and cultural supremacy in the Greek world.

Temple of Athena Nike. Acropolis. Athens

Smaller temple with 4 columns on front and back. Gables depict Amazons, battle of Greeks, Divine Assembly, Centaurs. Has statues of Athena and Nike (symbol of victory).

Parthenon. Acropolis, Athens

Massive Doric temple and treasury. Pediments have sculpted decoration showing events in mythology. Ex: birth of Athena (balance, equipoise), Battle of the Lapiths and Centaurs, frieze depicting procession Panathenaea, gold and ivory statue of Athena and Nike.

Erechtheion. Acropolis, Athens

Another temple with sanctuary for Athena, Poseidon, Hephaestus, Erechtheus-Poseidon, and Boutes. Notable has caryatid porch with statues of women as supporting column.

Hellenistic Age

Alexander the Great spreads Greek culture along with the empire.

Hellenistic Temples

Variations in patterns and elements derived from the Classic. Manipulation of movement and enclosed spaces. Buildings as experiences, rather than object. Heterogeneity instead of the ideal. 

Temple of Apollo. Didyma, Turkey

colossal temple that was never finished. Seams like a straightforward Ionic temple, but has controlled movement, recessed courtyard with pilasters on facade, and smaller temple on the inside,

Compare and contrast the architecture, art, and planning of the Hellenistic age with those of the Classical age.

Sanctuary of Athena. Lindos, Greece.

Temple clomplex rather than single building. Tiered building with massive stoa.

Hellenistic Pergamon, Turkey

City greatly inspired by Classical Athens. Donates massive stoa to Athens. 

Pergamon vs Akropolis

Akropolis has mostly religuous structures, Pergamon has more versatility (heroum, shops, library, theatre).

Altar of Zeus

Covered in sculptures, great frieze shows battle of Gods and Giants (represents Greeks vs Galls). Sculptures show detailed, dramatic, dynamic movement.

Rome

Roman territories overlap Greek and Hellenistic areas. Roman builders used Greek and Hellenistic forms and ideas just as Hellenistic builders used Greek precedents.

Arches and Vaults

Romans use arches in monumental architectures. Arches rely on wedge shaped elements and require temporary frameworks. Very long spans are possible using stone, brick, or concrete with arches. 

Pont du Gard. Nimes, Frances

Aqueduct. Shows Roman’s provision of infrastructure.

What were the technological achievements of the Roman builders?

Special concrete formula, arches, vaults, domes, roads and bridges, aqueducts/ water systems, heating technology. Romans could build large domed buildings and heated bath houses.

Roman concrete

concrete with volcanic ash. very resilient, self healing?

Roman temples

Etruscans greatly inspire Romans. Shares gable, columns and porch with Greek temples. Layout has stairs, deep porch, and chamber(s) in back. 

Maison Carree. Nimes, France

Blend of Etruscan and Greek temples. Both a religious structure, and monument celebrating imperial power. Inspired the Virginia State House. Richmond, VA.

Pompeii, Italy

City blew up.

Forum. Pompeii

rectangular yard surrounded by Basilica, temples, government buildings, arches.

What were some of the standard building types found in Roman cities such as Pompeii and Rome. 

Temples, forums (political, religious, and commercial center), Basilicas (rectangular hall used for law courts, business, and civic meetings), Amphitheatre (gladiatorial games and public spectacles), theaters (plays and performances), Baths (hot, lukewarm, cold baths), Aqueducts, markets. 

Stabian Baths. Pompeii.

Public baths

House of the Vetti

Large house made by two wealthy brothers. Courtyard surrounds a garden. Main dining room shows painting of Pompeii as a thriving city, depicting average citizens lives.

Imperial Rome

Republic ends with murder of Caesar, starts with Augustus. Rome expands empire and influence

What were the functions and major elements of the various forums of Rome? Compare Forum Romanum with Forum of Trajan. 

Forum Romanum was the oldest and most important forum in the Roman Republic. The layout was irregular and evolved over time. It had civic and commercial purposes, and represented Roman democracy. The Forum of Trajan represented peak imperial design and was geometrically designed. It served as propaganda for the imperial power and reinforced order and triumph. 

Temple Vesta

Temple in the Forum Romanum. Might be the oldest sacred spot in Rome. The Vestal Virgins tend to the sacred flame.

Temple of Antoninus and Faustina

Temple in the Forum Romanum. Perserved because it was converted into a church.

Forum of Trajan

(Left to right) Temple of Trajan, Basilica Ulpia, Forum of Trajan, Forum of Augustus, Forum of Nerva, Forum Pacis. Open plaza with bronze and gilded tiles. 

Column of Trajan. Forum of Trajan

In the middle of the forum, +100’ high marble sculpture. Hollow for stairway. Shows relief of campaigns from Dacian wars. 

Flavian Amphitheatre (Colosseum)

Built on sire of Nero’s Golden House in reaction to Nero’s rule and use of land for personal aggrandizement. Made for all of Romans to enjoy (bread and circus campaign). Symbolized male virtues of courage, discipline, material skills. Seating was based on social class and gender.

Briefly trace the development of concrete architecture in ancient Rome.

Pantheon. Rome

Dedicated by cult of emperors beginning with Augustus. Mostly concrete building. Porch attached to cylinder with dome. Scale requires complex scheme of cavities. Aperture allows for light. Materials imported from around the world.

Sanctuary of Jupiter Heloppolitanus. Baalbek Lebanon. 

This temple complex was the largest religious complex in the Roman Empire, built over
several centuries and dedicated to Jupiter, Venus and Bacchus (sometimes interpreted
as Mercury), called the Triad of Heliopolis. Great Temple, Temple of Bacchus (similar to Greek temples), Temple of Venus (tiny dome with weird roof).