psych module 2 - cognition

perception

the process by which the brain organizes and interprets sensory info, transforming it into meaningful objects and events

crucial step in cognition, allows to understand and interact with the world

bottom-up processing

using senses, stimuli are triggered which are then processed by the brain

sensation

top-down processing

interpret what senses detect which is influenced by experience

perception

selective attention

process of focusing on a specific aspect of info while ignoring others

allows to prioritize sensory info that is most relevant to the current task

plays key role in how we perceive and interact with the environment

cocktail party effect

ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy, crowded environment while tuning out other stimuli

perception can be directed to what is most interesting and relevant

auditory context

inattentional blindness

an individual fails to notice an unexpected stimuli in their visual field when their attention is focused on something else

highlights the limits of perceptual/cognitive processing

change blindness

failure to notice large changes in one’s environment when the change occurs simultaneously with a visual disruption

highlights the limits of visual perception and attention

schemas

mental frameworks that helps us organize and interpret information from the world based on prior knowledge

influence perception by shaping expectations and guiding attention

perceptual set

tendency to perceive or notice some aspects of the available sensory data and ignore others

influenced by expectations, experiences, and context; shapes perception by predisposing us to expected senses

gestalt psychology

perceive whole objects/figures (gestalts), rather than just a collection of parts

suggests that the brain is wired to see structure, pattern, organization (closure)

guides how we interpret sensory info and experience perception

figure-ground

refers to the ability to distinguish an object from its surroundings

involves the brain’s organization of sensory info, highlighting important stimuli and filtering irrelevant details

binocular depth cues

visual info that requires both eyes to perceive depth and distance

retinal disparity

when each eye sees a slightly different picture because of their separate positions on the face

brain uses differences between the eyes’ images to figure out depth and 3D

binocular depth cue

convergence

when both eyes move inwards to focus on a close object, helps comprehend depth

binocular depth cue

monocular depth cues

visual indicators of distance and space that can be perceived with one eye

relative clarity

depth cue where objects that are clearer and more detailed are perceived closer, objects far away are hazier

monocular depth cue

relative size

visual cue where objects that are closer appear larger and farther away objects are smaller

brain uses difference in sizes to distance between object and self

monocular depth cue

texture gradient

way we perceive texture to become denser and finer as it recedes into the distance

monocular depth cue

linear perspective

parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance

vanishing point

monocular depth cue

interposition

occurs when an object overlaps on another, leading us to believe the overlapping object is closer

monocular depth cue

perceptual constancies

brain’s ability to see objects as unchanging, even when the image on our retina (color, shape, size) changes

shape constancy

ability to perceive an object as having the same shape, even when our angle of the object changes

size constancy

ability to perceive an object as having the same size, even when its distance from us changes

color constancy

ability to perceive color of objects as stable under varying lights

apparent movement

stroboscopic movement

perception of motion even when there is not any; how we see still pictures as moving, brain fills in the gaps (gestalt)

similar to a flipbook and animation

metacognition

thinking about one’s own thinking process

cognition

mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

executive functioning

cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behavior and experience critical thinking

prototypes

mental image (similar to schema) or best example of a category that aids in recognizing and categorizing object/concepts

assimilation

cognitive process of fitting new info into existing schemas

accomodation

cognitive process of modifying existing schemas or creating new ones in response to new info

convergent thinking

cognitive process that focuses on finding a single correct solution to a problem by applying logical steps

divergent thinking

thought process/method used to generate creative ideas by exploring many solutions

creativity involves finding ew and unique ideas

functional fixedness

cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object in only its traditional use

restricts problem solving by hindering ability to see alternate uses for an object

convergent thinking

algorithm

step-by-step procedures/formulas for solving problems that guarantee the correct solution

powerful for organizing an approach to complex issues and having consistent results

convergent thinking

heuristics

mental shortcuts (rule of thumb) that simplify decision making by reducing cognitive burden

speed up problem solving, especially under uncertain conditions

efficient but can lead to errors in judgement

representative heuristic

cognitive shortcut wherein individuals make judgements about probability of an event under uncertainty based on how much it resembles existing typical cases

can lead to incorrect judgement

stereotypes

availability heuristic

mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a person’s mind when evaluating topic, concept, method, decision

can distort judgement of fear → fear wrong things

usually traumatic/disastrous examples

mental set

tendency to approach a situation in a certain way because that method worked in the past (can prevent from seeing alternate solutions)

priming

exposure to one stimulus influences the response to a subsequent stimulus without conscious guidance or intentions

ex: walk into store → see/smell flowers → happier while shopping

framing

how info is presented influences decision and perception

often used in marketing, ex: 90% fat free vs 10% fat full

gambler’s fallacy

cognitive bias that occurs when people believe that the outcome of a random event is influenced by previous outcomes, even tho each event is independent and does not impact the next event

sunk-cost fallacy

cognitive bias where people continue investing time, money, or effort into a project/decision because they have invested so much, even if the returns are poor or the endeavor no longer aligns with their goals

intelligence

ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

general intelligence (g)

overarching mental ability that influences performance on various cognitive tasks

charles spearman

multiple intelligence

theory suggesting that individuals possess different types of intelligence beyond traditional measures

linguistic, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, interpersonal, musical, spatial, naturalistic, existential

growth mindset

belief that abilities and intelligence can be developed thru dedication and effort

fixed mindset

belief that intelligence is predetermined and cannot be significantly changed

prevents growth, stubborness

intelligence quotient (iq)

numerical measure of an individual’s cognitive abilities compared to other in their age group, typically assessed thru standardized tests

(mental age ÷ chronological age) • 100

standardization

process of establishing consistent testing procedures and norms for administering and scoring psychological assessments

ensures fairness and reliability by providing basis for comparison among test-takers

achievement tests

assess a person’s knowledge of skills in a specific area such as academic subjects or job-related tasks

measure what is known

aptitude tests

measure a person’s potential for learning or mastering specific skills/tasks in the future

assess innate abilities and predict future performance

validity

extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure

v - very accurate

construct validity

checks if a test really measures what it is supposed to

helps make sure the test gives the right results for what it is trying to figure out

predictive validity

shows how well a test can forecast future outcomes or behaviors

measures if test scores can predict future performance accurately

reliability

consistency in test results over time and among different scorers

assures that test yields stable and dependable measurements

r - repeat results

test-retest reliability

assesses consistency by administering the same test twice

measures how stable scores are over time

split-half reliability

divides test into two halves and compares scores between them

measures internal consistency by checking if both halves yield similar results

flynn effect

trend of avg iq scores increasing over generation

suggests rise in (g) due to environmental and cultural factors

unknown cause

stereotype threat

phenomenon where individuals underperform in situations where they feel at risk of confirming negative stereotypes about their social group

most likely stems from anxiety

stereotype lift

occurs when individuals from stereotypically advantages groups perform better on tests due to the positive expectations associated with their group

memory

the persistence of learning over time

information that has been acquired and stored, and can be retrieved

encoding

first stage of memory, where perceived info is transformed into a format that can be processed and stored in the brain

storage

process of retaining info in the brain over time

retrieval

process oof accessing info and bringing stored info back into conscious awareness

multi-store model

describes memory as a three-part system, including sensory, short term, and long term memory

often criticized because it is too basic/linear

sensory memory

initial stage of memory where sensory info is stored for a brief period

acts as a buffer for stimuli received thru senses and retains impressions of such stimuli for a few seconds

iconic memory

type of sensory memory that briefly holds visual image

captures precise copy of visual scene for a fraction of a second

echoic memory

type of sensory memory that retains auditory info

holds sounds for 3-4 seconds, allowing brain pt process spoken language and other auditory stimuli

short-term memory

temporarily holds small amount of info, typically for 15-30 seconds

has limited capacity

long-term memory

stage of memory where info is stored indefinitely with unlimited capacity

allows for long-term retention of knowledge, skills, experiences, and facts

working memory

form of short-term memory used for temporarily holding and manipulating info

short term and long term memories combine

ex: when you cook, recipe starts to become ingrained

central executive

the control center of working memory

manages attention, coordinates memory components, and integrates info from senses and long term memory

phonological loop

component of working memory responsible for processing and storing verbal and auditory info

consists of:
- temporarily holds words and sounds for a few seconds
- rehearses and refreshes info over time

visuouspatial sketchpad

component of working memory that handles visual and spacial info

allows for temporary storage and manipulation of images and spatial relationship

enables:
- navigation
- geometry
- visual tracking
- manipulating objects

long-term potentiation

long lasting increase in signal transmission between neurons that results from their simultaneous activation

considered one of the major cellular mechanisms that underlies learning and memory

effortful processing

type of memory encoding that requires active work and attention to embed info into long term memory

actively focusing on and thinking about material

automatic processing

the unconscious encoding of info about space, time, frequency, well-learned tasks

info processed automatically and without deliberate attention

levels of processing model

proposes that the depth at which info is thought about affects how well it is remembered

deeper processing → more connections made within the brain → increase likelihood of remembering

shallow encoding

basic level of processing that focuses on surface characteristics of info

involves minimal attention, leads to fragile memories

ex: sound/appearance of words without knowing definitions

structural

phonemic

type of shallow processing that focuses on the physical structure of info

shallow processing that focuses on auditory aspect of info

deep encoding

involves thoroughly processing info by focusing on its meaning and connecting it to existing knowledge

analyzes significance and implications of info

creates durable and easily retrievable memories

chunking (grouping)

memory strategy that involves grouping individual pieces of info into larger, meaningful units

allows more items to be held in short term memory

reduces cognitive load

categories (grouping)

method of organizing info by grouping related items into categories

helps structure info in logical way

hierarchies (grouping)

organizing info into system of ranked categories or levels

facilitates efficient recall thru structure

viewing in layered approach → understand complex relationships

mnemonics

techniques used to improve memory

help in recalling info by associating it with simple cues like patterns, vivid images, or rhymes

mental shortcut

method of loci

mnemonic technique that involves associating items to be remembered with specific physical locations

links info to visual representations of familiar locations

allows for retracing the mental path thru locations to retrieve info

explicit memories

involves conscious recall of facts and experiences

semantic and episodic

semantic memory

type of explicit memory that involves the recall of general facts/knowledge of the world

ex: concepts, words, symbols, meanings

episodic memory

type of explicit memory that involves recall of personal experiences and specific events

what/when/where of experience, 1st person pov

autobiographical memory

type of memory that encompasses events/experiences from an individual’s life

combines episodic and semantic

ex: first day of work
semantic: learn to use cash register
episodic: emotions when running late

implicit memories

type of memory without conscious thought and crucial to performing everyday tasks automatically

procedural memory

type of implicit memory that involves recall of how to perform tasks/skills automatically

ex: skill based actions: driving, typing, playing instrument

prospective memory

remembering to perform a planned action or recall a planned intention in the future

remembering to perform action triggered by specific cues

massed practice (cramming)

learning strategy where content is studied intensively over a short period of time without breaks

shallow processing, short term memory, will not go to long term

spacing effect (distributed practice)

phenomenon where learning is more effective when study sessions are spaced out over time

better consolidation of info into long term storage + deeper level of processing info

maintenance rehearsal

learning technique that involves repeatedly reviewing info to keep it in short term memory

temporarily retaining info

elaborative rehearsal

memory technique that involves deep processing of info by adding meaning/connecting it to existing info

stronger and more lasting memories

retrieval cues

stimuli that bring previously learned info to mind, play critical role in retrieving memories

external cues: environmental factors that trigger memories

internal cues: thoughts/feelings associated with the original learning

recall

type of memory retrieval that involves accessing info without the aid of cues

retrieve memory info spontaneously