Unit 1 Vocabulary – Scientific Foundations of Psychology

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards covering Unit 1 psychology foundations and related methodological concepts.

psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

empiricism

The view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should rely on observation and evidence.

humanistic psychology

An approach focusing on growth, self-actualization, and positive human potential.

cognitive psychology

The study of mental processes such as thinking, memory, problem solving, and language.

evolutionary psychology

A framework that explains psychological traits as evolved adaptations shaped by natural selection.

behavioral psychology

The study of observable behavior and the ways it is learned through conditioning.

psychodynamic psychology

An approach emphasizing unconscious conflicts and childhood experiences in shaping behavior.

social-cultural psychology

The study of how social and cultural contexts influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

biological psychology

The branch examining how biology influences behavior, including brain and neurotransmitter activity.

developmental psychology

The study of how people grow and change physically, cognitively, and socially across the lifespan.

biopsychosocial approach

An integrated view that attributes behavior to biological, psychological, and social factors.

nature-nurture issue

The debate over whether genetics (nature) or environment (nurture) primarily shapes behavior.

social psychology

The study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another.

testing effect

Improved memory for information that is actively retrieved during testing.

natural selection

The process by which heritable traits that aid survival are more likely to be passed on.

positive psychology

The study of human flourishing and factors that contribute to well-being.

psychometrics

The field concerned with the theory and technique of psychological measurement.

counseling psychology

Psychology focused on helping people cope with life issues and achieve personal growth.

clinical psychology

The branch dealing with diagnosing and treating mental illness and psychological disorders.

health psychology

The study of how psychological factors influence health, illness, and healthcare.

psychiatry

Medical specialty dealing with the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental illness; can prescribe medications.

hypothesis

A testable educated guess about a relationship between variables.

correlation

A measure of the extent to which two variables are related; does not imply causation.

statistical significance

A result unlikely to have occurred by chance, typically determined by a p-value threshold.

hindsight bias

The tendency to see events as having been predictable after they have occurred.

operational definition

A precise statement of how a variable will be measured and manipulated in a study.

replication

Repeating a study to see whether its findings hold under different conditions.

case study

An in-depth examination of a single person, group, or event.

naturalistic observation

Watching and recording behavior in its natural environment without interference.

survey

A method of collecting self reported attitudes or behaviors from a sample of participants.

sampling bias

A flawed sampling process that produces a non-representative sample.

population

The entire group of individuals about whom a conclusion is to be drawn.

random sample

A sample chosen by chance to represent a population, reducing bias.

correlation coefficient

A numerical index (between -1 and 1) showing the strength and direction of a relationship.

variable

Any factor that can vary across individuals or over time.

independent variable

The factor that researchers manipulate to observe its effect.

confounding variable

An outside influence that changes the effect of a dependent and independent variable.

dependent variable

The outcome measured in the experiment.

scatterplot

A graph that shows the relationship between two variables as a collection of points.

illusory correlation

Perceiving a relationship between variables even when none exists.

Third variable problem

The issue that a hidden variable may explain the relationship between two others.

regression toward the mean

Extreme scores tend to be closer to the average on subsequent measures.

experiment

A study that manipulates one or more factors to observe their effect on a outcome.

experimental group

Participants exposed to the treatment or manipulation of interest.

control group

Participants not exposed to the treatment, used for comparison.

random assignment

Randomly placing participants into groups to minimize preexisting differences.

double-blind procedure

Neither participants nor researchers know who is in which group to reduce bias.

placebo

An inert treatment given to control for the expectancy effects of receiving an intervention.

Meta-analysis

A statistical technique that combines results from multiple studies to identify overall trends.

validity

The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.

informed consent

Permission granted with full understanding of possible risks and benefits.

debriefing

After participation, researchers explain the study’s purpose and methods.

histogram

A bar graph showing the frequency distribution of a variable.

mode

The most frequently occurring value in a dataset.

mean

The arithmetic average of a set of numbers.

median

The middle value when data are ordered.

skewed distribution

A distribution that is not symmetrical; the tail extends more to one side.

range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores.

standard deviation

A measure of how much scores vary around the mean.

normal curve (normal distribution)

A symmetrical bell-shaped distribution of many natural phenomena.

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more certain of one's beliefs or judgments than warranted.

Falsifiable

Capable of being proven false by evidence; testable.

Sample

A subset of a population studied in research.

Representative sample

A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population.

Convenience sampling

A sampling method using readily available participants, which may bias results.

Generalizability

The extent to which findings apply to settings outside the original study.

Single-blind

Only participants are unaware of which condition they are in; researchers know.

Social desirability bias

tendency of respondents to answer in a way that will be viewed favorably by others.

Qualitative (i.e., structured interviews)

Non-numeric data focusing on descriptions, meanings, and/or themes.

Quantitative (e.g., Likert scales)

Numeric data collected to quantify variables (e.g., on a scale).

Peer review

Evaluation of research by experts in the field before publication.

Directionality problem (correlation)

Difficulty determining which variable influences the other in a correlation.

Self-report bias

Inaccuracies in self-reported data due to memory errors or desire to respond in a certain way.

Informed assent

Agreement by a minor to participate in research, alongside parental consent.

Protection from harm

Ethical obligation to minimize physical and psychological risk to participants.

Confidentiality

Ensuring participants’ data are kept private and secure.

Deception

Providing misleading information to participants; requires justification and debriefing.

Research confederates

People within a study who act as participants or assistants to influence the study’s social context.

Bimodal distribution

A distribution with two distinct peaks or modes.

Percentile rank

Position of a score relative to others in a distribution (e.g., 90th percentile).

Effect size

A measure of the magnitude of a phenomenon or the strength of a relationship.