P2 - Developing as a Learner

Theories

Piaget’s Stage Theory & Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Piaget’s Stage Theory Definition

Children move through different stages (4) determined mainly by bio development.

Distinctly different qualities, a way to explain the changes in the logic of thinking throughout the ages.

He said that the way we develop is universal

Stages

• 0-2 sensorimotor stage

• 2-7 peroperactional thought stage

• 7-12 concrete perational thought stage

• 12+ Formal stage

0-2 sensorimotor stage

Learners through movements and sensation (the senses)

8 months - starts object permanence (ball is UNDER cloth)

18-24 months - object permanence solidifies (ball is somewhere)

2-7 preoperational thought stage

Speech and symbolic thinking start to develop. Starts being able to understand the conservation of matter. Remains egocentric until later in the stage.

7-12 Concrete Operational Thought Stage

(child starts going to skl). Children are able to solve tasks but still need concrete examples and can’t transfer knowledge to different contexts. Have lost teh egocentrism and this is a major turning point in cognitive devloment as logical thinking develops. Conservation of matter is developed.

12+ formal Stage

Formal, abstract thought devlops.Hypotheical examples and complex problem solving.

Thsi tsgae is based on things as education and so on. Not everyone reaches this stage.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Cognitive development is not the result of interaction between a child and the physical world. → social interaction with MKO that led to development cultural tools to understand the world. 

Impossible to describe the process of cognitive development w/o taking into account the child's social environment and/or culture. Culture provides knowledge and teaches what and how to think.

Vygotsky continued

social constructivism.

Social interaction played a large role in the development and learning of children.

Children and adults are both active agents in the child’s learning, and the quality of teacher-student interaction is crucial. Learning through assistance and encouragement to perform a task that is slightly above their current ability.

Level of independent performance does not sufficiently represent development and rather represents what’s already achieved - ‘yesterday of development’. Level of assisted performance indicates what the child can perform in the near future - ‘tomorrow of development’. 

Three types of Q3 questions

1. Discuss the possibility of generalizing the findings of the study.

2. Discuss how a researcher could ensure that the results of the study are credible.

3. Discuss how the researcher in the study could avoid bias.

→Changes if qual/quan

Possibility of Generalizing Findings (QUANTITATIVE)

1. Representatives of the sample (participant variability)

2. Sample size

3. Mundane realism

4. Ecological validity

5. Internal validity

Representatives of the sample (participant variability)

Is the sample in the target population?

Does the sample reflect the larger population?

Could sampling bias (WEIRD, sex, ethnicity, etc.) affect generalizability?

Sample size

How big is the sample + cell?

Could study be replicated for increased reliability?

Mundane realism

Could the event in the study actually happen?

Ecological validity

How the environment affects the results of the study (controlled vs. natural setting)

Internal validity

Were extraneous variables controlled?

Construct validity // Operationalisation

Are the constructs adequately measured // Is the measure measuring my DV?

Ensuring credibility (QUANTITATIVE)

Validity

1. Internal

2. External

Interna Validity definition

“The rigor of the study and the extent to which

the researcher took alternative explanations into

account.“

→Looking at if extraneous variables are sufficiently controlled so as to not influence results

How to improve internal validity

Operationalization of variables (construct validity)

Control extraneous variables

If internal validity is low…

…cause and effect relationship is compromised due to the possibility of extraneous variables making it seem as if there is a causal relationship.

External validity definition

“The extent to which the results of a study can be

generalized or transferred to another sample or

context”

Types of external validity

Ecological & Population

Ecological validity definition

“The extent to which experimental findings can be generalized to real-life situations, considering the realism and immersive nature of the experimental settings.“

→ Consider mundane realism and controls set in place (is it “too“ controlled?)

Population validity definition

“Whether you can reasonably generalize the findings from your sample to a larger group of people (the population)“

→ Consider representativeness of the sample in relation to the target population (sampling method)

What to discuss in relation to credibility

• Balance between internal and external validity

• Controls used (were they effective in controling EVs/ too effective)

• The effectiveness of internal and external validities

Avoiding Bias (QUANTITATIVE)

1. Researcher Bias

2. Sampling Bias

3. Participant Bias

Researcher Bias

Researchers beliefs or expectations of the results of the study affect the data callection and analysis of results

• Confirmation Bias

• Funding/ Publication Biases

• Biases from Design/ Methodology

Confirmation Bias definition and how to reduce it

“the tendency to search, interpret, and recall information in a way that aligns with our pre-existing values, opinions, or beliefs”

One way to limit that chance of comfirmation bias is single/double blind control

Funding // Publication Bias definition and how to reduce it

“The tendency of a scientific study to support the interests of the study's financial sponsor”

“The idea that studies that find null, or unexpected, effects are less likely to be published than those that find significant effects in the expected direction.“

Ways to limit include peer reviewing in publication process and publishing study no matter results

Biases caused by method or metholodgy examples

• Leading questions

• Forced choice questions (surveys)

• Order, practise and fatigue effects

Sampling Bias

“Sample is not representative of the target population”

→Ideally sample would be selected randomly

Participant Bias

“Participants chamnge their befabiou to how [they believe] the researcher wants them to act”

Including:

• Demand characteristics

• Expectancy Effect

• “Screw you” and “Please you” Effects

• Social desireability

Possibility of Generalizing Findings (QUALITATIVE)

1. Representational generalization

2. Inferential generalization (transferability)

3. Possibilities of creating a psychologocal theory from research

Representational generalization

The ability of the results of the study to be generalized to the population the sample fits in

Inferential generalization

Question the possible considerations that should be taken into account when transferring the findings to another population

Forming a theory from research

Could a psychological theory be formed to fit a larger/global population? What limitations are there?

What should be discussed

Sampling Bias’ effect on gen.

The variables that would have to be the same (think “is the situation in thsi study too specific to be generalised”)

Ensuring credibility (QUALITATIVE)

Ensuring accuracy and truthfulness of the study

Relies on credibililty of researches (so how much they allow their biases to affect their research) and research methods

How to enhance credibility:

1. Phenomenological approach

2. Member checking

3. Aggregate research

4. Peer review

5. Triangulation

Phenomenological approach definition

“The acknowledgement that the research only credible to the extent to which the participant agrees the results reflect their reality”

Member checking definition

“Check results with participants to allow them to explain behaviours, correct errors or give more information as necessary”

Aggregate research

Findings of the study are in line with previous research and reflect grounded theory

Data triangulation definition

“The use of a variety of data sources, including time, space and persons, in a study. Findings can be corroborated and any weaknesses in the data can be compensated for by the strengths of other data, thereby increasing the validity and reliability of the results.“

E.g. interviews on different dates or in public vs private, questionnaires among two separate populations

Method triangulation definition

“Tests a theory or a psychological phenomenon using different methods of inquiry. Data from a variety of methods (survey, interview, case study, experiments) is used to help validate the results of a study.”

Researcher triangulation definition

Use more than one researcher to carry out the study and analyse the results to make sure results not just due one person’ interpretation of the data (like confirmation bais or misinterpretation of data)

Avoiding Bias QUALITATIVE

Consider

1. Researcher triangulation

2. Sampling bias

3. Leading questions

4. Personal reflexivity

5. Epistemological reflexivity

6. +Could consider the three biases mentioned in quanti

Personal reflexivity

How the researcher’s own values, attitudes and experiences affect their ability to remain objective when carrying out the study & analysing the results

Epistemological reflexivity

How the way research carried out may effect the findings, e.g. face to face interview on a sensitive topic