APES bts test

Chernobyl, Ukraine: Nuclear Power Disaster

April 26, 1986

Three Mile Island, Pennsylvania: Nuclear Power Disaster

March 28, 1979

Bhopal, India: Toxic Air

December 2-3, 1984

Exxon Valdez, Alaska: Oil Spill

March 24, 1989

Love Canal, New York: Polluted Ground

1942 to 1953

James Bay, Canada: Where did the Water Go?

September 1984

Deepwater Horizon: BP Oil Spill

April 20, 2010

Fukushima, Japan: Nuclear Power

March 11, 2011

What Happened?

Chernobyl, Ukraine: Nuclear Power Disaster

Reactor No. 4 of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant exploded due to a power surge during a poorly conducted safety test. The RBMK reactor became unstable at low power, leading to overheating, explosion, and fire. Massive amounts of radioactive materials were released into the atmosphere, contaminating surrounding regions.

What Happened?

Three Mile Island

A partial meltdown occurred at the Three Mile Island nuclear plant in Pennsylvania due to equipment malfunctions and operator error. A stuck relief valve and a misinterpretation of system conditions led to overheating of the reactor core and release of small amounts of radioactive gases.

What Happened?

Bhopal Gas Leak

A chemical reaction between water and methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas at the Union Carbide plant in Bhopal, India, caused a massive toxic gas release. The plant's safety systems failed, exposing over 500,000 people to deadly gases in one of the world's worst industrial disasters.

What Happened?

Exxon Valdez Oil Spill

The Exxon Valdez oil tanker struck Bligh Reef in Alaska's Prince William Sound, spilling 11 million gallons of crude oil into the ocean. The spill spread over 1,300 miles of coastline, causing major environmental damage and killing large numbers of marine animals and birds.

What Happened?

Love Canal, New York

From the 1940s to 1950s, Hooker Chemical dumped over 21,000 tons of toxic waste into the abandoned Love Canal. In the 1970s, residents noticed chemical leaks, odors, and health issues, revealing massive soil and water contamination in a residential neighborhood.

What Happened?

James Bay Caribou Drowning

During Québec's James Bay hydroelectric project, damming the Caniapiscau River flooded a key caribou migration route. Around 10,000 woodland caribou drowned, making it one of the worst wildlife die-offs in Canadian history due to poor planning of seasonal animal movement.

What Happened?

Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill

The Deepwater Horizon offshore drilling rig exploded in the Gulf of Mexico due to a faulty cement seal and inadequate safety measures. The blowout caused a massive oil leak lasting 87 days, releasing over 3 million barrels of crude oil into the ocean.

What Happened?

Fukishima Nuclear Disaster

A 9.0 magnitude earthquake and tsunami disabled the Fukushima Daiichi power plant's cooling systems, causing reactor meltdowns and hydrogen explosions. Radioactive materials were released into the air and ocean, making it the worst nuclear accident since Chernobyl.

Effect

Chernobyl, Ukraine: Nuclear Power Disaster

- Widespread radioactive contamination across Ukraine, Belarus, Russia, and parts of Europe

- Forests, soil, and waterbodies polluted by isotopes like iodine-131, cesium-137, and plutonium

- Increased cancer rates, especially thyroid cancer

- Long-term ecological damage to ecosystems and agriculture

- Massive human displacement and abandonment of towns like Pripyat

Effect

Three Mile Island

- Minimal environmental damage due to limited radioactive release

- No confirmed increase in cancer or health problems in the surrounding population

- Triggered fear and public opposition to nuclear energy

- Prompted reforms in reactor training, design, and safety protocols

Effect

Bhopal Gas Leak

- Immediate death toll in the thousands; long-term health issues for over half a million people

- Chronic respiratory problems, cancers, birth defects, and neurological damage

- Soil and groundwater contamination that persists decades later

- Increased cancer and disability rates in future generations

- Ongoing environmental health crisis in the affected area

Effect

Exxon Valdez Oil Spill

- Killed hundreds of thousands of animals: seabirds, otters, whales, and more

- Destroyed fish populations and disrupted the marine food chain

- Contaminated 1,300 miles of Alaskan shoreline

- Long-term ecosystem damage, some of which persists today

- Economic losses to fishing and tourism industries

Effect

Love Canal

Serious health problems: birth defects, cancers, miscarriages, epilepsy

Contamination of soil and groundwater with toxic chemicals

Decline in local vegetation and ecological degradation

Forced evacuations and property abandonment

Raised national awareness of hazardous waste mismanagement

Effect

James Bay

- 10,000 caribou drowned, one of Canada's worst wildlife die-offs

- Flooding of more than 11,000 km² of boreal forest, altering the ecosystem permanently

- Collapse of river ecosystems and wetlands

- Mercury bioaccumulation in fish, affecting Cree communities

- Reduced river flows and habitat loss for aquatic species

Effect

Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill

- Massive marine die-off: fish, turtles, dolphins, and birds

- Contamination of 1,300 miles of shoreline

- Long-term damage to coastal marshes, mangroves, and coral ecosystems

- Reproductive and genetic defects in marine animals

- Harm to fishing and tourism industries, with human health concerns from exposure

Effect

Fukishima

- Radioactive contamination of land, ocean, and food chains

- Bioaccumulation of cesium and iodine in marine life

- Disruption of ecosystems and biodiversity in contaminated areas

- Evacuation of tens of thousands of residents

- Mental health effects: anxiety, PTSD, and depression

- Ongoing concerns about food safety and environmental recovery

Reparation

Chernobyl

- Immediate response included dropping sand and boron by helicopter to contain the fire

- A concrete sarcophagus was built around the damaged reactor, later replaced by the New Safe Confinement structure

- Massive decontamination efforts: removing soil, cleaning buildings, closing contaminated water systems

- All other reactors were shut down; international reforms improved nuclear safety

- Long-term cleanup and containment still ongoing

Reparation

Three Mile Island

- Reactor TMI-2 was shut down and damaged fuel was removed

- Radioactive water was decontaminated and waste was shipped off-site

- The plant was partially decommissioned; TMI-1 continued operating until 2019

- Led to major changes in U.S. nuclear regulations, operator training, and control room design

- Strengthened Nuclear Regulatory Commission oversight

Reparation

Bhopal Gas Leak

- Immediate medical aid was provided, but response was slow and uncoordinated

- Union Carbide paid $470 million in a controversial 1989 settlement

- Site cleanup was minimal for decades; hazardous waste remained

- In 2025, India began finally transporting toxic waste for disposal

- Dow Chemical denies liability; activists still demand cleanup and full compensation

Reparation

Exxon Valdez

- Mechanical recovery using booms and skimmers; chemical dispersants were tested

- Manual beach cleanup and wildlife rescue teams deployed

- Oil Pollution Act of 1990 passed, strengthening spill prevention and response

- ExxonMobil paid billions in fines and cleanup costs

- Ongoing ecological monitoring and some areas still affected today

Reparation

Love Canal

- EPA led cleanup: capped contaminated area with synthetic cover

- Homes and a school in the most affected area were demolished

- 40-acre containment cap and improved liquid collection systems installed

- Over 260 homes were rehabilitated and resold

- Inspired the Superfund Act (CERCLA), which funds toxic site cleanups across the U.S.

Reparation

James Bay Caribou

- Wildlife loss was irreversible, but future flooding operations were redesigned

- Environmental monitoring and seasonal migration data were used in future planning

- Indigenous Cree communities received compensation and greater environmental protections

- Led to reforms in hydropower project planning and increased ecological consideration in future phases

Reparation

Deepwater Horizon

- Booms, skimmer boats, and chemical dispersants used to contain and break down the oil

- Manual cleanup on beaches and complex efforts in marshes

- Billions in settlement funds allocated to long-term restoration of coastlines and wildlife

- Monitoring and restoration of marine populations, including turtles and oysters

- Regulatory changes to offshore drilling safety and blowout preventer systems

Reparation

Fukushima

- Reactors were stabilized and brought to cold shutdown

- ALPS system used to treat contaminated water, though it faced issues

- Evacuations, land decontamination, and soil removal in affected areas

- Robotics used for fuel debris removal due to radiation hazards

- Japan reformed its nuclear safety laws, emphasizing disaster resilience and public safety

Desert

Plants: Saguaro cactus, creosote bush, brittlebush

Animals: Black-tailed jackrabbit, kangaroo rat, Gila monster

Location: Sahara (North Africa), Mojave (Southwestern U.S.), Gobi (Northern China/Mongolia)

Climate: Extremely dry with less than 50 cm of annual rainfall, temperature extremes (scorching hot in summers, too cold in winter)

Savannah

Plants: Acacia trees, baobab trees, elephant grass

Animals: Lions, elephants, zebras

Location: East Africa (e.g. Kenya, Tanzania), Northern Australia, parts of Brazil (cerrado)

Climate: Warm year-round, distinct wet and dry seasons; with 50-150 cm of annual rainfall

Chaparral

Plants: Chamise, manzanita, scrub oak, California buckwheat

Animals: Acorn woodpecker, jackrabbit, mule deer, coyotes, horned lizards

Location: Coastal California (U.S.), Baja California (Mexico), central Chile, southwestern Australia, South Africa's Cape

Climate: Mediterranean-like, hot dry summers and mild, wet winters, 25-100 cm of rain yearly; fire-prone

Grassland

Plants: Buffalo grass, ryegrass, wildflowers like coneflowers

Animals: Bison, prairie dog, coyote

Location: Central North America (U.S. prairies), Argentina (pampas), Central Asia steppes

Climate: Semi-dry climate with hot summers, cold winters, and 25-75 cm of rain per year

Temperate Deciduous Forest

Plants: Oak trees, maple trees, beech trees

Animals: White-tailed deer, red fox, black bear

Location: Eastern U.S., parts of Europe (e.g. Germany), Eastern China, South Korea

Climate: 4 seasons, moderate rainfall (70-150 cm/year), cold winters, and warm summers

Tundra

Plants: Arctic moss, lichen, dwarf willow

Animals: Caribou, Arctic fox, snowy owl

Location: Northern Alaska, northern Canada, Greenland, northern Russia

Climate: Very cold, dry climate; short summers; long, freezing winters (permafrost is common)

Taiga (Boreal Forest)

Plants: Spruce, fir, and pine trees

Animals: Moose, gray wolf, lynx

Location: Canada, Russia (Siberia), Scandinavia (Finland, Sweden), parts of Alaska

Climate: Long, cold winters and short, mild summers; moderate precipitation (mostly snow)

Tropical Rainforest

Plants: Rubber trees, kapok trees, vines (like lianas), epiphytes such as orchids and bromeliads

Animals: Monkeys, jaguars, parrots, tree frogs

Location: Amazon (Brazil, Peru), Congo Basin (DRC), Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia), Central America

Climate: Very warm and wet all year round, monthly temperatures > 18°C, annual rainfall of 1,700-3,000 cm

Estuary

Plants: Mangroves, saltmarsh grasses, seagrasses

Animals: Crabs, oysters, herons

Location: Where rivers meet oceans: Chesapeake Bay (U.S.), Thames Estuary (U.K.), and the Ganges Delta (India/Bangladesh)

Climate: Varies by location but often includes brackish water, tidal changes, and high productivity

Intertidal Zone

Plants: Sea lettuce, rockweed, kelp (in lower zones)

Animals: Barnacles, sea stars, mussels

Location: Along coastline worldwide - Pacific Northwest (U.S.), Japan, Chile, and Norway

Climate: Conditions vary with tides, air exposure and submerged daily; temperatures and salinity fluctuate

What is Pangea?

Pangea was a supercontinent that existed around 300 million years ago, where almost all the landmasses on Earth were joined together. The name comes from Greek, meaning "all Earth."

What are the four layers of Earth?

Crust: Outermost layer made of solid rock (mostly granite on continents and basalt in oceans).

Mantle: Below the crust, composed of hot, semi-solid rock rich in iron and magnesium.

Outer Core: Made of liquid iron and nickel, generates Earth's magnetic field.

Inner Core: Solid iron and nickel due to immense pressure, despite extremely high temperatures.

Continental vs Oceanic Crust

Continental Crust: Thicker (25-70 km), less dense, mostly made of granite, older, and less easily recycled.

Oceanic Crust: Thinner (5-10 km), denser, primarily made of basalt.

How is Earth's magnetic field generated?

Earth's magnetic field is created by the movement of liquid iron in the outer core. This motion generates electric currents, which produce a magnetic field through the geodynamo process.

How do tectonic plates move?

Tectonic plates move due to convection currents in the mantle. Hot magma rises, cools, and sinks, creating circular flow patterns that push and pull the plates on Earth's surface.

What is a mid-oceanic ridge?

A mid-oceanic ridge is an underwater mountain range formed where two oceanic plates are moving apart. New oceanic crust is created by magma rising at these divergent boundaries.

Example: Mid-Atlantic Ridge

What happens when oceanic and continental plates collide?

Oceanic plates are denser than continental plates. When they collide, the oceanic plate sinks beneath the continental plate in a process called subduction.

How are mountains formed

Mountains are formed when tectonic plates collide and push the Earth's crust upward. This usually happens at convergent boundaries where two continental plates meet.

Example: Himalayas

What boundary occurs at the San Andreas Fault?

The Pacific Plate and the North American Plate are sliding past each other along the San Andreas Fault in California. This is a transform boundary.

Who proposed the theory of continental drift?

Alfred Wegener, a German scientist, proposed the theory of continental drift in the early 20th century. He noticed that the continents seemed to fit together like puzzle pieces.