AP U.S. Government: Foundations, Democracy, Federalism & Key Cases (vocab)

Limited Government

The belief that government power should be restricted by law, usually through a written constitution, to protect individual rights and liberties.

Natural Rights

Rights inherent in human beings, not dependent on governments (traditionally life, liberty, and property, as defined by John Locke).

Popular Sovereignty

The principle that the ultimate authority and power of a government rests with the consent of the governed (the people).

Social Contract

An implicit agreement among members of a society to cooperate for social benefits, surrendering some freedoms in exchange for state protection of their remaining rights.

Republicanism

A philosophy of limited government with an elected representative system serving at the will of the people.

Declaration of Independence

The 1776 document draft by Thomas Jefferson asserting independence from Great Britain, grounding its argument in natural rights and popular sovereignty.

Participatory Democracy

A model emphasizing broad, direct citizen participation in politics and civil society (e.g., town halls, ballot initiatives).

Pluralist Democracy

A model emphasizing group-based activism by nongovernmental interest groups striving to influence political decision-making (e.g., interest groups like the NRA or ACLU, coalition building).

Elitist Democracy

A model emphasizing limited participation in politics and civil society by a small, wealthy, or powerful group of elites (e.g., Electoral College, corporate lobbying dominance).

Articles of Confederation

The original, weak U.S. governing document (1781-1789) that created a decentralized system with a weak central government unable to tax, enforce laws, or maintain a standing army.

Shays' Rebellion

A 1786 armed uprising by Massachusetts farmers protesting debt, which exposed the fundamental weakness of the Articles of Confederation to maintain order and led to the Constitutional Convention.

Federalist No. 10

An essay by James Madison arguing that a large republic is superior to a small one at controlling the dangers of 'factions' (groups acting against the public interest) through a broad diversity of interests.

Brutus No. 1

An Anti-Federalist paper arguing against a strong central government under the proposed Constitution, claiming a large republic would lead to tyranny, destroy state sovereignty, and alienate citizens from their representatives.

Federalist No. 51

An essay by James Madison explaining how the structure of the proposed government-utilizing checks and balances and separation of powers-would prevent any single branch from gaining too much control ('ambition must be made to counteract ambition').

Great (Connecticut) Compromise

The agreement at the Constitutional Convention that established a bicameral legislature: a House of Representatives based on state population and a Senate with equal representation (2 per state).

Three-Fifths Compromise

An agreement counting three-fifths of the enslaved population for both representation in Congress and direct taxation purposes.

Electoral College

The official constitutional body that elects the President and Vice President, created as a compromise between direct popular election by citizens and election by Congress.

Importation of Slaves Compromise

A compromise stating Congress could not ban the transatlantic slave trade until 1808 (20 years after ratification).

Separation of Powers

The division of government authority into distinct branches (legislative, executive, judicial) to prevent any one branch from consolidating power.

Checks and Balances

The constitutional features that empower each branch of government to limit or block the actions of the other branches (e.g., presidential veto, judicial review, Senate confirmation of appointments).

Amendment Process

The formal mechanism (outlined in Article V) to change the Constitution, requiring a two-thirds vote in both houses of Congress (or a national convention) and ratification by three-fourths of the state legislatures.

Federalism

A system of government where power is constitutionally divided and shared between a central national government and regional state governments.

Enumerated (Expressed) Powers

Powers specifically granted to the federal government in the Constitution (e.g., power to declare war, coin money, regulate interstate commerce).

Implied Powers

Powers not explicitly stated in the Constitution but reasonably inferred from enumerated powers (derived from the Necessary and Proper Clause).

Inherent Powers

Powers that belong to the national government simply because it is a sovereign state in the international community (e.g., controlling borders, acquiring territory).

Reserved Powers

Powers not granted to the national government nor denied to the states, strictly set aside for the states under the Tenth Amendment (e.g., public education, local policing).

Concurrent Powers

Powers shared simultaneously by both national and state governments (e.g., taxing, building roads, operating courts).

Necessary and Proper (Elastic) Clause

Article I, Section 8, Clause 18; grants Congress authority to make all laws 'necessary and proper' for executing its enumerated powers.

Commerce Clause

Article I, Section 8, Clause 3; empowers Congress to regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several states, frequently used to expand national jurisdiction.

Supremacy Clause

Article VI, Clause 2; establishes that the U.S. Constitution, federal statutes, and treaties constitute the 'supreme Law of the Land,' overriding state laws in conflict.

Tenth Amendment

The constitutional amendment explicitly reserving all powers not delegated to the federal government to the states or the people.

Fourteenth Amendment (Due Process & Equal Protection Clauses)

Post-Civil War amendment used to apply constitutional protections to state governments (selective incorporation) and limit state power.

Dual Federalism ('Layer Cake')

A model where national and state governments operate within strictly separated, clearly defined spheres of authority.

Cooperative Federalism ('Marble Cake')

A model where national, state, and local governments share responsibilities, policy execution, and funding (prominent since the New Deal).

Devolution (New Federalism)

The intentional movement or policy shift to return powers, authority, and administrative duties from the federal government back to state governments.

Categorical Grants

Federal money granted to states for specific, narrow purposes defined by federal law (often includes strict federal strings attached).

Block Grants

Federal funding provided to states with broad guidelines, giving states significant discretion in how to allocate funds within a general policy area.

Mandates (Funded vs. Unfunded)

Rules or regulations imposed by the federal government requiring states to comply with federal standards, regardless of whether federal funding is provided (e.g., Americans with Disabilities Act).

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Established the constitutional validity of implied powers through the Necessary and Proper Clause and reaffirmed national supremacy over states via the Supremacy Clause.

United States v. Lopez (1995)

Struck down the federal Gun-Free School Zones Act, establishing strict limits on Congress's authority under the Commerce Clause and marking a pivot toward state sovereignty and devolution.