english unit one- (NOT POETRY)

verbs: shows states of being , action o’r concept

• Main verb: a single verb that expresses the main meaning in a clause or sentence.

• Auxiliary verb: (sometimes known as ‘helping verbs’) come before the main verb and support it in some way:

• Modal auxiliary: always come with a main verb and express a degree of certainty, desirability or obligation – e.g. must, could, might, should, can, may, would •

• Primary auxiliary: can be a main verb and there are only three of them (be, have, do) – e.g. I have a new car. He is tall. She did it

functions of verbs

There are different verb functions

• Dynamic: a physical action – e.g. running, sleeping, talking

• Stative: show states of being or conditions – e.g. be, felt, appear, seem, become, loved These can be further categorised as…

• Mental: shows internal processes – e.g. thinking, wondering, wish

• Verbal: show communication through speech – e.g. say, shout

• Transitive: dynamic verbs that requires an object – e.g. She kicked the ball

• Intransitive: dynamic verbs that don’t require an object – e.g. sneeze, laugh

Nouns: name a thing or a concept

• Proper nouns: refer to names of people of places; need a capital – e.g. James, England

• Common nouns: things which do not need to be capitalised – e.g. park, cat, mother, road Common nouns can be further categorised…

• Concrete: objects that have a physical existence; they can be touched – cup, table, car, road

• Abstract: states, feelings and concepts; cannot be touched – love, anger, hatred, fear,

• Collective: groups of people, animals or objects – flock of sheep, herd of cows, family

Prepositions

Prepositions show the relationship between two things in a sentence – usually in terms of place or time.

E.g. – at, in, on, during, by The man by the door I’m going there before I go to work. She was hiding under the table.

Conjunctions

connect phrases/clauses together Co-ordinating conjunctions: link independent phrases / clauses – e.g. ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘or’, ‘yet’

Sub-ordinating conjunctions: link an independent and dependent phrase / clause – e.g. ‘because’, ‘although’, ‘while’ Self-quizzed?

Adjectives

Types of adjective

• Base: basic form; gives information about a noun – e.g. big, loud, interesting

• Comparative: compares two instances either adding ‘er’ or ‘more’ – e.g. bigger, louder, more interesting

• Superlative: identifies a best example – e.g. biggest, loudest, most interesting

Pronouns: replace a noun or noun phrase (cannot modify; must replace)

• Personal pronouns: refer to people

•  1 st person singular pronoun – I

• 2 nd person singular pronoun – you • 2 nd person plural pronoun – you (referring to more than one person)

• 3 rd person singular pronoun – she • 3 rd person plural pronoun – they (referring to more than one person)

• Possessive pronouns: show ownership – e.g. mine, our, his

• Demonstrative pronouns: direct the reader or listener towards a person, object or idea – e.g. that, those, this ,

• Remember, pronouns replace nouns, so: This desk = ‘this’ is not a pronoun; ‘This’ (pointing) = is a pronoun because it replaces ‘desk’ Indefinite pronouns: refer to a person, object or idea that is non-specific – e.g. somewhere, anybody, everything, someone, somebody

Pronouns:These can be further categorised as…

• Relative pronouns: refer to something already mentioned in the sentence – e.g. that, which, who • ‘My mother, who was born overseas…’ (‘who’ refers to the mother already mentioned) - ‘We had fish and chips, which is my favourite meal…’ (‘which’ refers to the food already mentioned) • ‘The house that Jack built…’ (‘that’ refers to the house already mentioned)

• Interrogative pronouns: create a question – e.g. why, who, where…

• Reflexive pronouns: words ending in –self or –selves and used to refer back to the object in the sentence – e.g. myself, himself, yourself • ‘I believe in myself’ (‘myself’ refers back to the object, I).

Adverbs: modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs

‘He ran quickly’ – modifies (gives more information about) the verb ‘ran’ ‘It’s a slow, very slow, game’ – modifies the adjective ‘slow’ ‘They were incredibly well organised’ – modifies another adverb (‘well’)

Types of adverbs

• Base: basic form; gives information about a verb, adjective or adverb – e.g. carefully, very, nervously, slightly

• Comparative: compares two instances either adding ‘er’ or ‘more’ – e.g. more carefully, faster, further

• Superlative: identifies a best example – e.g. most carefully, furthest, fastest I

• intensifying: a string of adverbs where one intensifies the next – e.g. so carefully; very quickly

Determiners: introduce nouns

• Definite article: shows that something is definite – ‘the’ Indefinite article: shows that something is indefinite – ‘a’, ‘an’

• Demonstrative determiner: directs the reader or listener towards a noun – e.g. ‘this table’, ‘those chairs’

• Possessive determiner: shows ownership – e.g. ‘my dog’, ‘our dog’, ‘your house’

• Quantifiers: show either specific or non-specific quantities of a noun

Specific: one, five, nine

Non-specific: some, many, a few

Some consider these adjectives

interjection

big mane for a little word= short exclamations

no gramatical value

used whne speaking not writing

turn taking

the organization of speakers’ contributing to a conversation

RP

an english accent which has a high social status and is not connected to a spesific region

paralingusitsigs

non-verbal comunications using gestures, posture and facial expressions

discourse

the study of spoken language

false start

an error in which a speaker or writer begins a sentence bus does not finish it. often bc they have forgotten what they were going to say, nervous or distracted

interruption

a speech action where one person breaks in to interject when another person is talking

utterance

a strech of spoken language used instead of a sentence when discussing a spoken language

repair

the correction of a mistake or misunderstanding in conversation

elision

the omission of sound in a collected speech

fillers

words used when hesetating in a speech e.e. um , er

vague language

phrases and words that are niether exact nor presise such as “that sort of thing”, “stuff” and whatsit

overlaps

simultaneous talk by 2 or more conversational participants, irrespective of it’s status in participants minds as an interuption

stress

the exaggerated phoneme in any particular way

prosdic features

the uses of pitch, pace, volume and rhythm. attention to key elements of spoken language

dialogue

language or interaction with 2 or more participants

deictics

terms used to denote words that rely on the context of the converation to be understood e.e pass me that

jargon

formal languge unique to a specific disciplaed feild

phatic talk

a verbal on non-verbal comunication thats social function, such as to start conversation with someone, say goodbye rather than an informative function

semantic feild

group of words that are related by themee.g cat , dog, hore, fish = animals

lexical set

a group of words that share a common feature, such as a specific vowel sound (phonetic set), a shared meaning (semantic set), or a common theme e.g For example, "cat, bat, mat, pat

school

• boring

• educational

• social stressful

sentence types- main clause

makes sense alone-  eg the dog stopped running

simple sentence

one subject and one verb- complete sentence e.e grace opened the door

compound sentence

combination of two or more main clauses e.e grace opened the door and looked outside

complex sentence

indipendent clause + dependent clause

when he won the award, everyone cheered

subordinating conjuntions ISAWAWABUB

IF, SINCE, AS, WHEN, ALTHOUGHT, WHILE, AFTER, BEFORE, UNILL, BECAUSE

co-ordinationg conjunctions FANBOYS

FOR, AND , NOT, BUT , OR , YER, SO