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Definitions from AMSCO Book and some from Rik Roy's Knowt. Thanks Rik.
B.F. Skinner
A psychologist known for pioneering the study of operant conditioning (Father of operant conditioning). Creator of the operant conditioning chamber (Skinner Box) to study how rewards and punishments influence behavior.
Operant Conditioning
Voluntary behavior; a learning process where behavior is influenced by its consequences, such as reinforcement (which increases behavior) or punishment (which decreases behavior). Using fixed or varying forms of reward/punishment to elicit a desired behavior.
Edward Thorndike
A psychologist who laid the foundation for operant conditioning with his work on the Law of Effect, which states that behaviors followed by favorable outcomes are more likely to occur again.
Trial and Error
A method of learning in which individuals attempt different behaviors until they find one that produces a desired outcome.
Law of Effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable outcomes are more likely to be repeated and behaviors followed by unfavorable outcomes are likely to be reduced.
Superstitions
Behaviors that are repeated because they are mistakenly believed to be linked to a reinforcement, even if they have no causal relationship.
Reinforcement
Any consequence that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behavior.
Punishment
Discourages a particular behavior by usually adding an aversive stimulus.
Primary Reinforcement
A type of reinforcement that uses stimuli that satisfy biological needs, such as food or water. (unlearned)
Secondary Reinforcers
Stimuli that gain their reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcers, such as money or praise. (learned)
Positive Reinforcement
Encourages a certain behavior by offering a positive stimulus (reward).
Negative Reinforcement
Encourages a particular behavior by removing an aversive (negative) stimulus.
Avoidance Behavior
Trying to avoid punishment. Avoiding a person dishing out punishment, or stopping the undesired behavior. (e.g., studying to avoid failing a test).
Negative Punishment
Remove something desirable to discourage behavior. Ex: take away your cell phone.
Positive Punishment
Discourage behavior by giving something undesirable. Ex: A spanking, an electric shock.
Escape Conditioning
Learn to end unpleasant stimuli by engaging in specific behavior. “Fawning”. Ex: a baby crying after he gets caught.
Avoidance Conditioning
A form of learning where an individual learns to prevent the occurrence of an aversive stimulus (e.g., leaving early to avoid traffic).
Operant Conditioning Chamber (Skinner Box)
A device used to study animal behavior, typically equipped with a lever or button that an animal can press to receive reinforcement or avoid punishment.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Rules that determine how and when a behavior will be reinforced.
Continuous Reinforcement
Reinforcing the desired behavior every time it occurs. Learning happens very quickly. Extinction happens very quickly if reinforcement is stopped.
Partial Reinforcement
Reinforcing a behavior only part of the time. Learning takes longer (slower acquisition). Extinction takes longer.
Ratio Schedules
Reinforcement is based on the number of responses made (e.g., every 5 responses).
Interval Schedules
Reinforcement is based on a set amount of time passing (e.g., every 10 minutes).
Variable Reinforcement
Reinforcement that is unpredictable/different because it varies either in the number of responses or the time interval.
Fixed Reinforcement
Reinforcement that follows a predictable/same pattern based on a set number of responses or fixed time intervals.
Fixed Interval Schedule
Reinforcement is given after a fixed (same) amount of time has passed (e.g., receiving a paycheck every two weeks).
Variable Interval Reinforcement
Reinforcement is given at unpredictable/different time intervals (e.g., checking for a random email).
Fixed Ratio Reinforcement Schedule
Reinforcement occurs after a fixed (same) number of responses (e.g., a bonus for every 10 items sold).
Variable Ratio Reinforcement Schedule
Reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable/different number of responses (e.g., gambling on a slot machine).
Shaping
A method in shaping behavior by reinforcing closer and closer versions of the desired behavior.
Chaining
A process in which individual behaviors are combined together to form a complex sequence of actions, each step reinforced to complete the chain.
Mary Cover Jones
Known as the "mother of behavior therapy," she developed desensitization techniques to reduce fear, including pairing a feared stimulus with a pleasant experience.
Behavior Therapy
A form of therapy that focuses on modifying observable behaviors through principles of learning, such as classical and operant conditioning.
Joseph Wolpe
Mary Cover Jones friend and colleague psychiatrist. Built on her original work in behavioral therapy. Wolpe took the idea of relearning a response and expanded it to include the biological principle of reciprocal inhibition.
Reciprocal Inhibition
A process of extinguishing an undesired response to stimuli by evoking a desired response in its place.
Systematic Desensitization
A process that first trains individuals with phobias in relaxation techniques and then exposes them to progressively more anxiety-provoking stimuli while they are relaxed.
Anxiety Hierarchy
A list of feared stimuli arranged from least to most anxiety-provoking, used in systematic desensitization.
Biofeedback
A technique where individuals learn to control physiological processes (e.g., heart rate) using feedback from monitoring devices.
Latent Learning
Learning that occurs but is not immediately demonstrated until there is an incentive to do so, studied by Edward Tolman.
Edward Tolman
A psychologist who proposed the concept of latent learning and introduced the idea of cognitive maps.
Cognitive Map
A mental representation of the layout of an environment, such as a maze or a neighborhood.
Robert Rescorla
Known for the contingency theory, which emphasized the role of predictability in classical conditioning.
Contingency Theory
Suggests that conditioning depends on how well the conditioned stimulus predicts the unconditioned stimulus.
Instinctive Drift
The tendency for animals to revert to instinctive behaviors, interfering with learned behaviors.
Abstract Learning
Understanding complex cognitive concepts or qualities such as same or different, love or hate, honesty or dishonesty— concepts that involve rules about relationships—rather than concrete stimuli such as specific objects, actions, or situations.
Gestalt Psychology
A perspective that emphasizes understanding the whole experience, rather than breaking it into parts, often associated with insight learning. School of psychology; founded by German psychologist Wolfgang Köhler.
Insight Learning
A sudden realization or "aha" moment where a solution to a problem becomes clear without trial and error.
Premack Principle
States that a person will perform a less desirable activity in order to perform the more desirable activity as a consequence.
Learned Helplessness
A mental state where an individual, after repeatedly experiencing uncontrollable stressful situations, develops a belief that they cannot change their circumstances and therefore stops trying to escape or avoid them, even when opportunities to do so exist
Problem-Focused Coping
Attempt to take control of a situation either by changing our behavior or changing the situation.
Emotion-Focused Coping
We believe we do not have control over a situation, or that we lack control over anything. Seeking out the support of others, trying to find a positive side to the stressor, or taking our minds off the problem.
Fixed Mindset
The belief that abilities and intelligence are natural and unchangeable.
Growth Mindset
The belief that abilities and intelligence can be developed through effort, learning, and practice.
Locus of Control
The perception of where control over life events resides.
Self-Control
The ability to delay the satisfaction of immediate desires for a long-term benefit—is effective in addressing behaviorial problems and correlates significantly with happiness.
Albert Bandura
A psychologist who developed the social learning theory and emphasized the role of observational learning.
Social Learning Theory
A theory that emphasizes learning through observing others and modeling their behavior.
Observational Learning/Modeling
Learning behaviors by watching and imitating others.
Vicarious Learning
Learning that occurs by observing the consequences of others' actions.
Vicarious Reinforcement
When individuals learn by observing someone else being rewarded for a behavior.
Reciprocal Determinism
Bandura's concept that behavior, personal factors, and the environment influence each other in a reciprocal way.
Bobo Doll Experiments
Studies conducted by Bandura demonstrating observational learning, where children imitated aggressive behavior toward a Bobo doll after seeing a model act aggressively.
Social Cognitive Theory
An extension of social learning theory that incorporates cognitive factors, such as self-efficacy and belief systems, in understanding learning.
Attention
Noticing that something is happening in the environment
Retention
Recall of what was noticed
Reproduction
A producing action that mimics what was noticed
Motivation
A consequence from the environment that changes the likelihood of the behavior recurring (reinforcement and punishment).
Self-Efficacy
The degree to which a person believes in his or her own ability to complete tasks or reach goals and influence situations.
Acquisition
The process of learning or gaining new information or behavior.
Performance
The actual demonstration of learned behaviors, which may depend on motivation and reinforcement.
Mirror Neurons
Neurons that fire both when performing an action and when observing someone else perform that action, believed to play a role in imitation and empathy.
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