Psychology and Research Methods Vocabulary

Vocabulary flashcards generated from introductory psychology lecture notes covering theoretical perspectives, research methodologies, statistical analysis, and ethical principles.

Perspectives

Different ways of thinking and writing about human behavior

Evolutionary Perspective

Natural selection and behavior adaptation for survival

Cognitive Perspective

Thinking, memory, problem solving and decision making

Behavioral Perspective

Environmental factors and observable behaviors (operant conditioning)

Humanistic Perspective

Individual potential and self-actualization (free will, personal growth)

Biological Perspective

Brain and nervous system (Genes and hormones)

Eclecticism

A flexible, multi-style approach to psychotherapy and counseling

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Cognitive Bias

An unconscious, systematic error in thinking that affects how people process information, make judgements, and reach decisions

Cultural Norm

A shared, unwritten expectation that guides how people within a specific group think and act

Confirmation Bias

A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident than correct – to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

Experimental Research

A scientific approach that tests cause-and-effect relationships by actively changing one variable to see what happens to another

Non-experimental Research

A method where researchers measure variables naturally without manipulatin and independent variable or randomly assigning people to groups

Independent variable

In an experiment, the factor that is manipulated

Random assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance

Case Study

A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

Meta-analysis

A procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies

Naturalistic Observation

A descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Falsifiable Hypothesis

A testable statement that can be proven wrong by an empirical observation or experiment

Operational Definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study (what to measure to come to a conclusion)

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be proved again

Dependent Variable

In an experiment, the outcome that is measured

Confounding Variable

A factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results

Data representation

The methods used to visually organize, display, and summarize research information

Measures of central tendency

Statistical descriptive tools used to pinpoint a single, typical value that represents the center of an entire data set

Mean

The mathematical average of a set of data

Median

The mathematical operation that identifies the exact middle score in a data set when all the values are placed in numerical order

Mode

The number that shows up most often in a data set

Measures of variation

Statistical values that describe how spread out or diverse a set of scores or data points are around a central point (mean)

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Standard deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Percentile Rank

The percentage of scores in a specific reference group that fall below a given individuals’ score

Normal Curve

A systematical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data

Positive skew

An asymmetrical data distribution where most scores cluster at the lower end of the scale, and a long tail extends toward the higher positive values on the right

Negative Skew

A data set where most scores cluster at the higher end of the scale

Bimodal distribution

A set of data or frequency graph that shows 2 distinct peaks

Regression towards the mean

When you measure something and get a very high or very low number, the next time you measure it, the number will likely be closer to the average

Population

All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

Sample

A smaller group of participants chosen from a larger target population

Representative Sample

A smaller group of participants that accurately mirrors the key traits of a larger target population

Random Sampling

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Convenience Sampling

A group of people chosen for a study simply because they are easy to reach and agree to help

Sampling Bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Generalization

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

Experimental group

In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

Control Group

In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment

Placebo

Experimental results caused by expectation alone

Single Blind Study

The participants don’t know which treatment group they are in

Double Blind Study

Neither the experimenter nor the participants know who is in which group

Experimental Bias

When a researcher’s personal beliefs change how they design a study, so the results will math their preferred hypothesis

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency of people to give answers that look good to others instead of telling them the truth

Qualitative Meausure

A non-numerical method used to collect data (words, behaviors, etc.)

Quantitative Measure

A way to assign numbers to thoughts, feelings, or actions

Structured Interview

An interviewer asks a fixed set of predetermined questions in a strict, specific order

Likert Scale

A psychometric tool used to measure people’s attitudes, opinions, or feelings

Peer review

The independent evaluation of a research study by other experts in the same field before it gets published

Positive Correlation

A relationship where two variables move in the same direction

Negative Correlation

A link between two things where one goes up, and the other goes down

Illusory Correlation

A cognitive bias where a person thinks a relationship exists between two separate things, when no true connection or pattern actually exists

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two things

Third Variable Problem

When an unmeasured, hidden factor causes an observed correlation between two other variables

Survey

A descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

Wording Effects

Occur when the specific choice, valence, or framing of words in a survey question, test item, or prompt systematically alters a participant’s response, decision, or behavior

Self-Report Bias

Happens when people give inaccurate answers on surveys or interviews about themselves

Institutional Review Board

An independent committee that reviews research proposals before they begin

Informed Consent

An ethical and legal process where a person receives clear details about a psychological study or therapy treatment

Informed Assent

A person’s affirmative agreement to participate in a study or treatment when they are not legally or cognitively able to provide official informed consent

Protect from harm

It requires researchers and therapists to make sure people do not suffer physical, mental, or emotional damage during a study or treatment

Confidential/Anonymity

Means no personal identifying data is directly linked to a person, and the participant’s identity is kept secret

Deception

The intentional distortion, omission, or fabrication of facts to mislead others into believing something the deceiver knows is false

Confederates

An actor or trained helper working for the researcher

Debriefing

An ethical procedure used after an experiment ends where researchers fully explain the study’s true purpose, reveal any hidden deception, answer questions, and ensure participants leave w/o emotional or physical harm

Effect size

A quantitative measure of the magnitude of a difference between groups or the strength of a relationship between variables