PRELIM

Language

is a unique and dynamic human capacity that developed alongside human life.

Grammar — system of rules

Phonology — sound system

Lexicon — vocabulary

Three core features of language

Linguistics

study of language

Linguist

person who studies language

Speech community

consists of people who use the same set language rules.

Language acquisition

Language is naturally acquired through a process called

mother tongue/first language

The first language learned from birth is known as the

Language learning

Acquiring other languages formally (schooling) or informally (exposure)

Language contact

Occurs when people from different speech communities interact and encounter each other's languages.

Language change

Continuous interaction can produce blended forms, mutual understanding, and language change over time.

Language

is a complex, powerful human capacity

Communication

is the exchange of thoughts, ideas, concepts, and views between or among people.

context

The environment where communication occurs is called the

Physical • Cultural • Social • Psychological

Factors affecting communication

mode, context, and purpose/style

Communication can be classified according to

Verbal

Uses words to communicate.

Nonverbal

Uses cues such as gestures, facial expressions, body language, tone, eye contact, and posture

Visual

Uses images to convey messages: symbols, signs, charts, graphs, maps, drawings, emojis, GIFs, animations, infographics, slideshows, and videos.

Intrapersonal

Communication with yourself: self-talk, reflective thinking, self-motivation, emotional regulation

Intra

means within

Interpersonal

Exchange between two or more individuals. Can be casual or transactional/goal-oriented.

Inter

means between

Casual

small talk, greetings, emotional sharing

Transactional

goal-oriented (e.g., asking for directions)

Extended

Uses electronic or digital media such as radio, TV, video calls, webinars, and teleconferencing. Requires formality, cultural sensitivity, and prepared messages

Organizational

Occurs in structured systems such as schools, companies, and government agencies

Formal channels

include downward, upward, horizontal, and crosswise communication

Informal Channels ("grapevine")

Unofficial, spontaneous conversations. Can foster connection or spread misinformation.

cultures

Organizations have unique _____: Shared values, behaviors, leadership styles

Intercultural

Occurs between people of different cultures, languages, religions, or ethnic groups. Differences in norms can cause misunderstanding.

Formal communication

Used in professional or academic settings. It is structured, precise, and prepared. Examples: business reports, speeches, research papers.

Informal communication

Used in casual or personal settings. It is spontaneous and relaxed. Examples: text messages, personal emails, chats with friends.

Formal

Aims to inform, persuade, or entertain with clarity and professionalism.

Informal

Aims to build rapport, socialize, and connect with others.

model

An abstract representation of a real-world process. Depicts the interplay of variables in graphic form. A tool to analyze and evaluate communication components and their functions

ARISTOTLE'S COMMUNICATION MODEL

One of the earliest models of mass communication; created before 300 B.C.; primarily focuses on public speaking and emphasizes the audience

ARISTOTLE'S COMMUNICATION MODEL

Emphasized the role of the audience in the communication process.

Speaker

The source or originator of the message

Speech

The content or message being delivered

Occasion

The specific time or context of the communication

Audience

The receiver(s) of the message

Effect

The desired impact or outcome of the message

Speaker, Speech, Occasion, Audience, Effect

S-S-O-A-E (ARISTOTLE'S MODEL)

Harold Dwight Lasswell

the American political scientist states that a convenient way to describe an act of communication is to answer the following questions

Who
Says What
In Which Channel To Whom
With what effect?

LASSWELL’S COMMUNICATION MODEL

This model is about process of communication and its function to society

Control Analysis

the communication component who refers the research area called

Content Analysis

Says what is refers to

Media Analysis

In which channel is refers to

Audience Analysis

To Whom is refers to

Effect Analysis

With What Effect is refers to

Claude Shannon

American mathematician and electronic engineer

Warren Weaver

American scientist

“A Mathematical Theory of Communication.”

First introduced in the Bell System Technical Journal article titled

SHANNON-WEAVER MODEL OF COMMUNICATION (1948)CATION

Originally designed for technical communication, but later widely applied to human communication.

noise

Establish effective communication and identify barriers or disturbances called

Sender (Information Source)

• The originator of the message or idea

• Selects and initiates the desired message

Encoder (Transmitter)

• Converts the message into signals suitable for transmission

• Example: In telephones, voice is converted into wave signals or binary data

Channel

The medium or pathway through which signals are transmitted Example: Cables, radio waves, satellites

Noise

Any external interference that disrupts the message during transmission

Decoder

• The reception point that converts signals back into understandable messages

• Reverse process of encoding

• If decoding fails due to noise, communication becomes ineffective

Receiver (Information Destination)

• The intended recipient of the message

• Interprets the message and may send feedback

BERLO'S SMCR MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Emphasizes that effective communication depends on the similarity between the sender and receiver

SOURCE (S)

Where the message originates; the sender/encoder.

MESSAGE (M)

The content being communicated from the source to the receiver.

CHANNEL (C)

The medium through which the message is transmitted.

RECEIVER (R)

The individual who decodes and interprets the message.

Communication

is a two-way process, and for it to be effective, certain foundational principles must be observed. These principles apply to both oral and written forms of communication and aim to enhance clarity, relevance, and audience engagement.

Oral communication

involves real-time interaction, often with visual and auditory cues.

Clarity, Conciseness, Concreteness, Correctness, Coherence, Completeness, Courtesy

7 C’s

Communication ethics

refers to the moral principles that govern how individuals and institutions interact through language. Ethics in communication ensures that messages are conveyed truthfully, respectfully, and responsibly, preserving the integrity of the speaker or writer and the dignity of the audience.

Honesty

Communicate without deception or distortion.

Integrity

Maintain consistency between words and actions.

Transparency

Share relevant information openly when needed.

Respect

Honor the dignity, beliefs, and opinions of others.

Responsibility

Acknowledge the consequences of your message.

Intercultural communication

focuses on bridging these gaps by increasing awareness, empathy, and adaptability when engaging with individuals from different cultural or linguistic backgrounds.

Take for granted 

To assume something is true or always available without questioning it.

Cultural biases

Preconceived notions influenced by one’s cultural background.

Domestic workforce 

Employees within the same country or locale.

Cultural overtones

Subtle cultural meanings that influence communication.

High-context cultures 

rely on implied meanings, non-verbal cues, and shared understanding.

Low-context cultures

depend on explicit, direct language and prefer messages to be clearly stated.

Sequential cultures

see time as linear, handling one task at a time, placing importance on deadlines and punctuality.

Synchronic cultures 

view time as cyclical and flexible, prioritizing relationships and context over strict schedules

affective cultures 

people express emotions openly.

neutral cultures

emotional expression is restrained and controlled.

Bautista & Gonzalez (2006)

According to _____, the structural characteristics of these new varieties differ. This is brought about by the mother tongue or home languages of those who learn or acquire English.

acrolect

comes closest to the standard

basilect 

digresses thoroughly from it and comes closest to the pidgin.

Mesolect

or the middle variety, is midway between the acrolect and basilect.

Kachru & Nelson (2006)

claim that these varieties of English are influenced by the local language(s) in various areas of their grammars and exhibit specific phonological, lexical, syntactic, and discoursal characteristics

Pope (1976, as cited in Kachru & Nelson, 2006)

According to ______, in the case of syntactic features, question-answering systems differ between Inner and Outer-Expanding Circles.

David Crystal (2008)

A variety of language defined according to its use in social situations (e.g., scientific, religious, formal English).

Style 

refers to the formality of language based on social interaction

Register 

refers to language tied to social situation, regardless of participant status

Lee (2001)

contrasts genre (linked to culture) and register (linked to situation). Register is shaped by field-mode-tenor and context-specific communic

Meierkord (2000, as cited by Kaur, 2016)

emphasizes that communication in English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) is:

"A form of intercultural communication characterized by cooperation rather than misunderstanding."