* starts at the oval window, continues to the apex of the cochlea, and connects to the scala tympani via the helicotrema. * It carries perilymph to the apex of the cochlea.
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scala tympani
* helicotrema at the apex of the cochlea → base of the cochlea → ends at the round window.
* It carries perilymph to the base of the cochlea.
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cochlear duct (scala media)
* located in between the scalae vestibuli and tympani, but is not connected to them. * It is filled with endolymph and contains the organ of Corti
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sound is a
* mechanical pressure wave * causes eardrum to vibrate
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vibration is passed on
the malleus → incus → stapes
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what amplifies sound?
ossicles
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The stapes passes the vibration onto
* the membrane that covers the oval window. * perilymph → scala vestibuli → apex of cochlea → helicotrema → scala tympani → round window (where its dampened)
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The pressure wave is passed to
* the scala media, endolymph moves, activating hair cells in the organ of Corti
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The movement of hair cells stimulates
* the cochlear branch of the vestibulocochlear cranial nerve (VIII) sending impulses to the medial geniculate nucleus in the brain
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auditory pathway
carry sound information from medial geniculate nucleus → primary auditory cortex → noise sensed in primary auditory cortex → auditory information sent to auditory association cortex (where it’s perceived)
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sound characteristics are
* loudness * pitch * direction of sound
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Loudness of sound is related to the
* amplitude of the sound wave. * Amplitude is perceived by varying thresholds of the cochlear cells and the number of cells stimulated. * This results in a varying rate of action potentials in the auditory cortex.
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Pitch is related to the
* frequency of the sound wave. * High frequency sounds cause AP in hair cells at the base of the cochlea. * Low frequency sounds cause AP in hair cells at the apex of the cochlea.
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direction of sound
* If the sound occurs on the right side of the head, the right ear receives it before the left. * The brain compares the time delay between sound arrival to the right and the left side and establishes the location.
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Equilibrium involves two components:
* static equilibrium * dynamic equilibrium.
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Static Equilibrium provides
* information regarding the position of the head relative to gravity * information on linear acceleration.
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The organ of static equilibrium is
the macula, located in the vestibule of the inner ear.
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The macula consists of
* sensory hair cells covered by a gel‐like cap with tiny crystals (otoliths) inside.
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When the head is tilted, gravity causes
* the crystals to slide to one side, pulling the gel and the sensory hairs. * This causes hair cells to trigger nerve impulses along the vestibular nerve to the brain.
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Dynamic Equilibrium provides
* information regarding linear and angular acceleration.
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Receptors for dynamic equilibrium are located in
the crista ampullaris of the ampullae of each of the semilunar canals.
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When the head accelerates in the plane of one of the canals,
* fluid moves in the canal. * The hair cells are stretched generating AP. * Angular acceleration may affect one, two, or all of the canals.
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AP from both the macula and crista ampullaris pass along
* AP → the vestibular branch → the cranial nerve VIII → to the brain. * Most of the proprioceptive information is directed to the cerebellum and processed subconsciously.
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There are three modes of input for balance and orientation:
* Vestibular receptors * Visual receptors * Somatic receptors (proprioceptors) * These receptors allow our body to respond reflexively