World History Topic 12 Flashcards

Alfonso de Albuquerque

Portuguese admiral (c. 1453-1515); conquered key ports like Goa and Malacca to control Indian Ocean trade, establishing Portugal's spice empire.

Bartolomé de las Casas

Spanish priest (1484-1566); criticized Spanish treatment of Indigenous peoples in "A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies"; advocated for Indigenous rights and African slavery as alternative (later regretted).

Bartolomeu Dias

Portuguese explorer (c. 1450-1500); first European to round Cape of Good Hope (1488), opening sea route to India.

Christopher Columbus

Italian explorer for Spain (1451-1506); "discovered" Americas in 1492 seeking Asia; four voyages led to European colonization.

Ferdinand Magellan

Portuguese explorer for Spain (1480-1521); led first circumnavigation expedition (1519-1522); died in Philippines, but ship returned proving Earth is round.

Francisco Pizarro

Spanish conquistador (1471-1541); conquered Inca Empire (1532) by capturing Atahualpa, founding Lima; killed in power struggle.

Henry the Navigator

Portuguese prince (1394-1460); sponsored African explorations, established navigation school; advanced caravel ships and mapped West Africa.

Hernán Cortés

Spanish conquistador (1485-1547); conquered Aztec Empire (1519-1521) with alliances, technology, and disease; governed New Spain.

John Cabot

Italian explorer for England (c. 1450-1500); reached Newfoundland (1497), claiming North America for England.

Vasco da Gama

Portuguese explorer (c. 1460-1524); first to sail from Europe to India (1498) via Cape route, establishing direct spice trade.

Caravel

Portuguese ship design; fast, maneuverable with lateen sails; enabled long ocean voyages for exploration.

Cash Crops

Crops grown for sale/export (e.g., sugar, tobacco); drove plantation economies in colonies, relying on enslaved labor.

Colonies

Territories settled and controlled by a foreign power; e.g., Spanish in Americas for resources, English for settlement.

Conquistadors

Spanish conquerors of Americas; motivated by gold, glory, God; used guns, horses, and alliances to defeat empires.

Creoles

People of European descent born in Americas; below peninsulares in social hierarchy; later led independence movements.

East India Company

British joint-stock company (1600); monopolized trade with Asia; evolved into colonial ruler in India.

Encomienda

Spanish colonial system; granted colonists Indigenous labor/tribute in exchange for "protection" and Christianization; often abusive.

Galleons

Large Spanish ships for treasure fleets; carried silver/gold from Americas to Europe; vulnerable to pirates.

Jamestown

First permanent English colony in Americas (1607, Virginia); struggled with starvation but succeeded via tobacco.

Joint-Stock Company

Business where investors buy shares; funded explorations (e.g., Virginia Company); shared risks/profits.

Maritime

Related to sea navigation/trade; European maritime empires (Portugal, Spain) dominated global routes.

Mestizos

People of mixed European-Indigenous ancestry; formed a middle class in colonial Latin America.

Mita

Inca/Spanish labor system; required Indigenous to work in mines/farms; under Spanish, it was forced and deadly (e.g., Potosí silver mines).

Mulattoes

People of mixed European-African ancestry; part of colonial racial castes in Americas.

Peninsulares

Spanish-born elites in colonies; held top government/church positions; above creoles in hierarchy.

Plantation

Large farm for cash crops (e.g., sugar in Caribbean); relied on enslaved African labor; basis of triangular trade.

Viceroy

Governor representing the king in colonies; e.g., Spanish viceroys ruled New Spain and Peru with councils.

Chartered Company

Government-granted monopoly for trade/colonization (e.g., Dutch East India Company); had army/navy powers.

Columbian Exchange

Transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and people between Old/New Worlds post-1492; e.g., potatoes to Europe, horses to Americas, smallpox devastating Indigenous populations.

Commercial Revolution

16th-17th century economic shift; rise of capitalism, banking, joint-stock companies; fueled by New World wealth and global trade.

Mercantilism

Economic theory: Nations build wealth via exports > imports, colonies for resources; led to trade wars and monopolies.

Middle Passage

Atlantic crossing in triangular trade; enslaved Africans endured horrific conditions on ships to Americas; high mortality.

Portuguese Exploration

Led by Henry the Navigator; focused on Africa/India for spices/gold; used caravels, established forts; Treaty of Tordesillas gave them east route.

Social Classes in Americas

Spanish hierarchy: Peninsulares (top), creoles, mestizos, mulattoes, Indigenous/Africans (bottom); based on race/birthplace; enforced by casta system.

Treaty of Tordesillas

1494 agreement dividing New World between Spain (west) and Portugal (east); line at 370 leagues west of Cape Verde; ignored by other Europeans.

Triangular Trade

Atlantic system: Europe to Africa (goods for slaves), Africa to Americas (slaves for crops), Americas to Europe (crops for goods); profited merchants, devastated Africa.

Explain three reasons the Spanish were able to conquer the Aztecs and Incas.

1. Superior technology (guns, steel, horses). 2. Alliances with rival Indigenous groups (e.g., Tlaxcalans vs. Aztecs). 3. Diseases like smallpox weakening populations.

Describe how the early explorations of Portugal and Spain were similar and different.

Similar: Both Portugal and Spain wanted sea routes to Asia to get rich from spices, were funded by kings and queens, and used advanced ships.Different: Portugal slowly explored along Africa’s coast and built trading forts in the Indian Ocean. Spain took a bigger risk by sailing west across the Atlantic, which led to Columbus reaching the Americas instead of Asia.

Describe the differences between the French, English, and Dutch methods of colonial administration.

The French had a centralized system, focused on the fur trade and forming alliances with Indigenous peoples, so they built fewer settlements. The English used decentralized charters and created settler colonies where people farmed and practiced religion. The Dutch focused on making money through trade, using companies and trading posts like New Netherland instead of large settlements.

What were the political and economic effects of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec and Inca empires?

Politically, Spain replaced the Aztec and Inca empires with centralized viceroyalties controlled by the crown. Economically, silver mining in the Americas enriched Spain and caused inflation across Europe, boosting global trade and wealth flow.

What were the social effects of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec and Inca empires?

Indigenous populations dropped by about 90% due to disease and forced labor. Spanish colonization led to mestizo societies blending European and Indigenous peoples. The encomienda system exploited Indigenous labor for Spanish gain, reshaping social hierarchies and daily life.

What was the Triangular Trade?

The Triangular Trade was a three-part trade system between Europe, Africa, and the Americas.

• Europe → Africa: Sent goods like guns, cloth, and manufactured items.

• Africa → Americas: Africans were captured and sold as slaves (Middle Passage).

• Americas → Europe: Raw materials and cash crops like sugar, tobacco, and cotton were shipped back to Europe.

• It was called “triangular” because of the three regions forming a trade triangle.

How did African slavery fit into the Triangular Trade, and what was its impact?

• Africans were captured and sold to work on plantations in the Americas.

• The Middle Passage was the brutal journey across the Atlantic; conditions were horrific, with many dying.

• Slavery provided a cheap, forced workforce for producing high-demand crops like sugar, tobacco, and cotton.

• It fueled European wealth but caused immense human suffering and long-term social/ethical consequences.