Renaissance and Reformation

Medici

The Medici were a powerful banking family in 15th-16th century Florence. Their vast wealth funded art, architecture, and humanist scholarship, making them key patrons of Renaissance culture—supporting artists like Michelangelo and Brunelleschi and championing the revival of classical learning.

Humanism

An intellectual movement centered on the study of classical Greek and Roman texts. Humanists emphasized human potential, secular education, and civic virtue. Petrarch is considered the "father of humanism.

Classics

Refers to ancient texts by authors such as Homer, Plato, Cicero, and Virgil. These works became the foundation of Renaissance humanist study, inspiring art, philosophy, and science.

Patron

An individual who financially supports artists, scholars, and humanists. Patrons enabled the Renaissance by funding works and encouraging learning. The Medici are the most famous example.

Perspective

A painting technique developed during the Renaissance to create the illusion of three-dimensional space on a flat surface, revolutionizing visual art.

Petrarch

(1304-1374) Italian poet, scholar, and early humanist, credited with rediscovering classical texts. He believed in learning from antiquity while remaining devoutly Catholic.

Machiavelli

(1469-1527) Italian political thinker and author of The Prince, an influential, pragmatic guide for rulers on gaining, maintaining, and consolidating power.

Martin Luther

(1483-1546) German monk and theologian whose 1517 Ninety‑five Theses attacked Church practices like indulgences and emphasized salvation by faith alone (sola fide), sparking the Protestant Reformation.

Indulgence

A Church "remission" of punishment for sins. Luther condemned the selling of indulgences, especially by figures like Johann Tetzel.

Lutherans

Followers of Luther who formed the first Protestant denomination. They emphasized scripture and faith over Church tradition and works.

Protestant

A general term for Christian groups that broke from the Catholic Church during the Reformation, starting with Luther and spreading under leaders like Calvin.

Catholic Reformation / Counter-Reformation

A movement within the Catholic Church to reform and respond to Protestantism.

Council of Trent

(1545-1563) The central council of the Catholic Counter-Reformation. It affirmed Scripture + tradition as sources of faith, justification by faith and works, all seven sacraments and transubstantiation, reformed seminary education, clergy discipline, and abolished indulgence selling.

Scientific Revolution

A period (16th-17th c.) marked by major scientific advances—Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Newton, Bacon, Descartes—who developed the scientific method, heliocentric theory, and laws of motion.

Calvinism

A Protestant movement founded by John Calvin in Geneva. It emphasized the absolute sovereignty of God, predestination, strict church discipline, and a theocratic structure.

Act of Supremacy (1534)

An English law declaring King Henry VIII the Supreme Head of the Church of England, effectively separating from the Pope and initiating Anglicanism.

Anglican

The Church of England, established by Henry VIII. Initially retained many Catholic rituals, but gradually adopted Protestant theology over time.

Printing Press

Invented by Gutenberg (c. 1450), it used movable type and dramatically increased literacy, spread of ideas, and availability of materials in vernacular languages. It was crucial for the Reformation and humanist scholarship.

Catholic Counter-Reformation

The Council of Trent, Jesuits, and reform measures collectively aimed to renew and defend Catholicism.

Scientific Method

An empirical, systematic procedure involving hypothesis, experimentation, observation, and analysis. Developed during the Scientific Revolution by figures like Bacon and Descartes.

Humanist Revival

A movement that explored individualism and secular governance, exemplified by figures like Petrarch and Machiavelli.

Indulgences

Payments made to the Catholic Church that were believed to reduce punishment for sins, leading to widespread corruption and dissatisfaction.

Luther

A key figure in the Protestant Reformation who challenged the Catholic Church's practices, leading to the formation of Lutherans.

Calvin

A Protestant reformer whose ideas led to the formation of Calvinists.

Calvinists

Followers of John Calvin's teachings, emphasizing predestination and the sovereignty of God.

Protestant Movement

A religious movement that arose in the 16th century in response to perceived corruption in the Catholic Church.

Counter-Reformation

The Catholic Church's response to the Protestant Reformation, aimed at reforming the Church and reaffirming its doctrines.

Jesuits

A religious order founded during the Counter-Reformation focused on education, missionary work, and the defense of Catholic doctrine.