TAFTMEDS 4

well-defined
problems

the initial state, the goal state, and the method of the
problem are clear

ill-defined problems

some stage of the problem is unclear

knowledge-rich
problems

lots of background knowledge required to solve problem

knowledge-lean
problems

no background knowledge required to solve problem

insight

suddenly realizing how to solve a problem

incubation

stage of problem solving when you’re not actively
working on solving the problem

functional fixedness

focusing only on obvious uses of an object in problem
solving

mental set

using a specific problem-solving strategy that has
worked previously when it won’t work

heuristics

efficient rules of thumb for generating approximate
answers

means-end analysis

heuristic; create a subgoal to bring the current state
closer to the goal state

hill climbing

heuristic; always make moves to get noticeably closer to
the goal state

progress monitoring

heuristic; observed slow progress leads to a change in
strategy

analogy

comparison between two objects or problems with an
emphasis on similarities

expertise

much acquired knowledge and repeated performance
after years of practice

plasticity

changes in brain structure and function correlated with
experience

deliberate practice

includes informative feedback and allows attempts to
correct errors

judgment

determining the probability of an event based on
incomplete information

decision making

making a choice among available options

base-rate information

the relative frequency of an event within a population

representativeness
heuristic

assuming someone belongs to a particular category
because they are typical of it

conjunction fallacy

incorrectly assuming that two events occur together
more often than they do apart

availability heuristic

estimating the frequency of events based on how easy it
is to recall them

loss aversion

being more sensitive to potential loss than gain

framing effect

irrelevant context can influence decisions

sunk-cost effect

continuing to invest resources in something that isn’t
paying off

neuroeconomics

understanding economic decisions from cognitive
neuroscience

impact bias

incorrectly estimating intense emotional reactions to loss

omission bias

preference for harm from not doing something

status quo bias

preference for the present state

selective exposure

preference for information that supports what you
already thought and avoiding information that doesn’t

inductive reasoning

forming generalizations from examples

deductive reasoning

reaching conclusion from set of assumed premises

falsification

attempting to falsify hypotheses from experimental tests

conditional reasoning

reasoning from if-then propositions

magneto-
encephalography
(MEG)

brain-scanning technique recording magnetic fields from
brain activity with good spatial and temporal resolution

straw man fallacy

refuting opponent’s views by misrepresenting their views
in some way

ad hominem fallacy

discrediting argument by attacking person making
argument

bounded rationality

people are as rational as environment and limited
processing capacity permit

Dunning-Kruger
effect

findings that less skilled individuals overestimate their
abilities more than those who are more skilled

fluid intelligence

nonverbal reasoning ability applied to new problems