The Anthropocene

What is the Anthropocene?

A proposed geological epoch marking the significant global impact of humans on Earth’s systems.

Who popularised the term Anthropocene?

Paul Crutzen, atmospheric chemist and Nobel Laureate, in the early 2000s.

When is the start of the Anthropocene commonly proposed?

Around 1950, coinciding with the “Great Acceleration” and nuclear bomb testing.

What are some possible geological signals of the Anthropocene?

Plastic pollution, radioactive fallout, carbon spheres, chicken bones, aluminium, and fertilizer chemicals.

What is the carbon footprint?

A measure of the total greenhouse gas emissions (mainly CO₂ and CH₄) produced by an individual, activity, or nation.

According to the Lancet Commission on Pollution and Health, how many premature deaths were caused by pollution in 2015?

9 million, accounting for 16% of all global deaths.

What are the two main types of air pollution?

Household (e.g. indoor cooking) and ambient (e.g. urban/industrial emissions).

What is PM2.5, and why is it significant?

Fine particulate matter less than 2.5 microns wide; it can enter the bloodstream and cause multiple diseases.

What are the predicted ecological effects of climate change in the Anthropocene?

Range shifts, phenological changes, species extinctions, and ecosystem disruption.

What is an example of contrasting species responses to climate change?

Adélie penguins declined by 22% due to sea ice loss, while Chinstrap penguins increased by 400%.

Why are deep sea fish populations vulnerable?

They are long-lived, have low survival when brought to the surface, and are poorly understood due to limited studies.

What is the main impact of deep-sea trawling?

It causes population declines in both target and non-target species, with ecosystem damage extending beyond 1500 m depth.

What depth range showed significant ecological impact with declining commercial value?

Between 600–800 meters.

What is one major conservation recommendation based on research findings?

Ban trawling deeper than 600 m to protect vulnerable species and biodiversity.

What are some strategies to reduce the impact of deep-sea fishing?

Marine Protected Areas, freezing the fishing footprint, selective gear, and depth limits.

What is meant by “freeze the footprint” in conservation?

Preventing expansion of trawling into new, untrawled deep-sea areas.

What is a Vulnerable Marine Ecosystem (VME)?

A region of the ocean with high biodiversity or sensitive species, prioritized for protection.

What method was used to analyze depth-related impacts on catch?

Generalised Additive Mixed Models (GAMMs) and permutation tests on ecological indices

What was a key policy success of this research?

Influencing the European Commission to propose a 600 m trawl depth limit.

What were the key lessons for conservation impact?

Persistence, evidence-based advocacy, ethical clarity, and political negotiation are critical for change.

What percentage of marine plastic pollution comes from land-based sources?

About 80%, mostly via rivers and poor waste management.

Why is international cooperation needed for marine plastic pollution?

Because plastics are transboundary pollutants—they affect multiple countries and international waters.

What economic concept explains why countries are reluctant to act alone?

Free-riding—countries benefit from others' efforts without contributing themselves.

What are the main damage costs of marine plastic pollution?

Harm to marine wildlife, ecosystems, fisheries, beaches, and human health.

What are the four main abatement strategies?

Reduce land-based plastic, clean ocean plastics, clean coasts, and reduce overall plastic use.

What approach was used to estimate public willingness to pay (WTP)

Discrete Choice Experiments (DCE) in the UK and US.

What cost-sharing model did UK and US respondents prefer?

A 50-50 split between countries over unequal distributions.

What was the projected economic benefit of a large-scale international agreement?

Around $60 billion net benefit for a 60% reduction in plastic stocks across the North Atlantic.

What influences how much a country should abate?

Its pollution export, damage costs, and cost of abatement.

What is the key challenge in forming effective International Environmental Agreements (IEAs)?

Ensuring they are self-enforcing, fair, and incentivize participation despite unequal benefits.

What is a Protected Area (PA) according to IUCN?

A clearly defined geographic space managed for the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem and cultural values.

What is the current global coverage of protected areas?

About 16.4% of land and 8.3% of ocean/coastal areas are protected.

What is Target 3 of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (2022)?

Protect 30% of land and marine areas globally by 2030.

What are the 6 IUCN categories of protected areas?

I: Strict reserves, II: National parks, III: Natural monuments, IV: Habitat/species management, V: Landscapes/seascapes, VI: Sustainable use area

What is an OECM?

An Other Effective area-based Conservation Measure—areas outside formal PAs that contribute to biodiversity conservation.

What is a major historical influence on the creation of protected areas?

Hunting and colonial legacies—early parks were often made for elite sport, not biodiversity

What is the critique of “fortress conservation”?

It often displaces local communities, restricts access to resources, and excludes indigenous people.

What is Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM)?

Conservation that engages and empowers local communities to manage and benefit from protected areas.

What are the main selection criteria for conservation areas?

Indicator species, flagship species, keystone species, ecosystem approach, and biodiversity hotspots.

What’s the difference between quantity and quality in PA targets?

Quantity = % area protected; Quality = effective, equitable, and ecologically representative conservation outcomes.

What is the "shifting baseline syndrome" in marine conservation?

The idea that each generation accepts a progressively degraded state of ecosystems as "normal."

What led to the extinction of Steller’s sea cow by 1768?

Overhunting by stranded explorers and prior pressure from indigenous hunting and range restriction.

What human factors drove the early marine exploitation boom?

Population growth, religion (Christian fasting), urbanization, prestige, and trade expansion.

Which two fish dominated early long-distance marine trade by the 14th century?

Cod and herring, preserved by salting, drying, and smoking.

What marine species group was globally devastated by industrialization?

Whales, with 2.9 million killed in the 20th century alone, many nearing extinction.

What historical fishing innovation triggered benthic habitat destruction?

Steam-powered bottom trawling, especially with otter trawls, damaging reefs, oysters, and cold-water corals.

What does the data show about modern fishing effort and catch?

Effort is increasing exponentially, but catch is stagnating or declining—signs of overexploitation.

Why is the deep sea called the “last great wilderness”?

It’s remote, vast, minimally regulated, but now increasingly targeted by supertrawlers.

What is ghost gear, and why is it dangerous?

Lost fishing equipment that continues to trap and kill marine life for decades or centuries.

What global treaty was signed in 2023 to protect marine biodiversity

The UN High Seas Treaty, aiming to protect 30% of the oceans by 2030 (“30x30”).

What is the main critique of "fortress conservation"?

It can exclude local communities, lead to displacement, and often fails to stop biodiversity loss.

What is CBNRM (Community-Based Natural Resource Management)?

A conservation approach that empowers local communities to manage wildlife and benefit economically.

What was a success of the CAMPFIRE program in Zimbabwe?

Reduced human-wildlife conflict and generated millions in revenue through trophy hunting for communities.

What is the definition of sustainable use under the Convention on Biological Diversity?

Use that does not lead to long-term decline, maintaining biodiversity for present and future needs.

What are the two main types of wildlife utilisation?

Consumptive (e.g. meat, trade) and non-consumptive (e.g. ecotourism).

What is the maximum sustainable yield (MSY)?

The largest yield that can be taken without reducing the population long-term—often overestimates safe harvest.

What is the anthropogenic Allee effect?

As species become rarer, their value increases, which can incentivize overexploitation and extinction.

What is CITES?

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, regulating trade of over 38,000 species.

What are the main concerns with the legal wildlife trade?

Overexploitation, disease spread, animal welfare, and its use as cover for illegal trade.

What is a major disease linked to the wildlife trade?

Avian influenza (H5N1), introduced via wild bird trade; also includes monkeypox, chytrid fungus, and others.

What does the crocodile case study show about regulated trade?

With strong governance and supply chains, crocodile skin trade became sustainable, reduced illegal trade, and supported conservation.

What are the 4 key elements for successful sustainable use?

Species traits, governance quality, supply chain structure, and market incentives.

What is a key critique of commercial wildlife use?

Often leads to overexploitation, poor regulation, welfare issues, and increased demand that enforcement can’t contain.

What is the anthropogenic Allee effect?

As species become rarer, their value increases, encouraging continued exploitation despite rising costs.

What was the impact of the ivory trade ban?

Mixed results; some countries saw population recovery, others still faced poaching, with illegal trade continuing via complex markets.

What concern arose from legal ivory stockpile sales?

They may have stimulated demand and confused consumers, making enforcement harder

What are the concerns about rhino horn farming?

While horns are renewable, farming may undermine wild populations, create market confusion, and weaken conservation ethics.

Why is tiger farming controversial?

It perpetuates demand for tiger products, with consumers preferring wild-sourced goods, risking illegal trade.

What are pros and cons of sport hunting?

Pros: high revenue, low infrastructure, supports remote conservation; Cons: corruption, poor monitoring, ethical issues, and declining animal numbers

What was the impact of Botswana’s 2014 sport hunting ban?

Loss of revenue and employment, rise in human-wildlife conflict, and calls to reinstate elephant hunting for conflict reduction.

What are common types of conservation interventions?

Translocations, disease control, rescue & rehab, alien species removal, reproductive suppression, supplementary feeding, research.

When is translocation appropriate?

When threats are removed or reduced, and benefits outweigh ecological, social, and economic risks, per IUCN guidelines.

What species was successfully recovered through reintroduction and translocation in Brazil?

The golden lion tamarin, with wild-born populations rising from ~200 to ~2,500 individuals.

What are key risks in animal translocations?

Stress, disorientation, aggression, disease transmission, and non-establishment.

What was a key finding from elephant translocations in Sri Lanka?

Many elephants returned (“homers”) or caused conflict elsewhere—translocation often intensified the problem.

What are pros and cons of translocating problem animals?

Pros: non-lethal, PR-friendly; Cons: high return rates, conflict shifts, and low success.

What are key concerns with wildlife rehabilitation?

High cost, low post-release survival, disease risk, and potential diversion from broader conservation goals.

What disaster demonstrated large-scale success in seabird rehab?

The Treasure oil spill (2000): 90% of 20,000 oiled African penguins were released, with high survival.

What is a key debate in disease control in conservation?

Whether to intervene or let disease take its course—balancing natural processes with extinction risk and welfare.

What factors influence attitudes toward intervention?

Species’ conservation status, human responsibility, animal popularity, welfare severity, and social values.

Where is the Payamino Project located?

In the Payamino Territory of Ecuador, home to the Kichwa community of San José de Payamino.

What were the key threats to the Payamino community?

Oil, timber, and gold companies, which risked pollution, deforestation, and cultural erosion.

When was the Payamino Project officially launched?

In 2002, after partnerships with Aalborg Zoo, Zoos Go Wild, and the University of Glasgow.

What were the community's commitments under the agreement?

Stop hunting for bushmeat trade, live animal trade, and use of poison/dynamite, and block extractive industries.

What educational and development benefits did the project provide?

Textbooks, school sponsorships, health visits, fishponds, IT training, and certified jungle guide programmes.

What were the research achievements?

14+ Glasgow expeditions, plant and mammal guides, and multiple biodiversity research projects.

What ornithological results were found?

344 bird species, 7 range extensions, and 30/31 high-quality habitat indicators recorded.

What impact did the project have after it ended in 2012?

Field station (Timburi Cocha) still active, with ongoing research by global universities.

What changed after the construction of a road and electricity?

Better access to healthcare and markets, but also increased forest disturbance and development pressures.

What is the overall assessment of the project in 2025?

Community still thriving; rainforest facing some ecological pressure, but large areas remain intact.

What percentage of Earth’s water is found in freshwater rivers and lakes?

Only 0.0072%—making it a rare and vulnerable resource.

What are the four categories of ecosystem services provided by freshwater systems?

Provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting services

What are major human-induced stressors on freshwater ecosystems?

Pollution, invasive species, keystone species loss, habitat destruction, and overuse.

What was a key ecological impact of gold mining in Venezuela?

Mercury contamination, sediment pollution, and massive habitat disruption leading to malaria outbreaks.

What did the Experimental Lakes Area in Canada reveal about eutrophication?

That phosphorus drives algal blooms—shown by fertilizing only one side of Lake 226.

What are Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) and their effects?

Hormone-mimicking pollutants (e.g., contraceptives) that cause gonad feminization and fish population collapse.

What freshwater keystone species was discussed, and what happens when it’s removed?

The beaver—its absence leads to wetland loss, while its return improves habitat quality and biodiversity.

How do barriers like dams impact fish?

They block migratory routes, especially for species like salmon, reducing breeding success.

What is the ecological consequence of groundwater abstraction?

It raises salinity levels, which become toxic to most plants through evaporation concentration.

Why are strandings investigated?

They provide early warning of disease, pollution, food scarcity, and other ecosystem stressors—especially in hard-to-monitor marine environments.