Studied by 0 people
urbanisation
the increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas
around 55% of the world lives in urban areas and this is constantly changing
How the rate of urbanisation differs between richer and poorer countries
In HICs
HICs are more economically developed
Most have already experienced urbanisation so around 80% of the population live in urban areas
Many people in HICs leave urban areas for less crowded, rural areas, so the rate of urbanisation is low - usually under 1%
In NEEs
NEEs are countries where economic development is increasing rapidly
The urban population is around 50% though for countries experiencing rapid urban growth, this figure can be much higher
Their rate of urbanisation is typically around 2%
In LICs
LICs are the least economically developed
Only around 30% of the population currently live in urban areas but most LICs have high rates of urbanisation - up to 6%
Rural-urban migration
the movement of people from the countryside to cities
urbanisation is caused by this and natutral increase - when birth rate ecceeds death rate - normally young people move to cities for work. they then have children there. access to better healthcare in urban areas increases the life expectany, preventing the decline of urban populations.
the rate of RUM is affected by a combination of push and pull factors:
push
natural disasters can damage property and farmland which is costly
rural areas can find it harder to recover as they tend to have fewer resources
mechanised agricultural equipment needs fewer workers so there are fewer jobs
desertification makes land unproductive so people can’t support themselves. Farmers’ incomes are unstable as these depend on good harvests
war or conflict
pull
there are often more jobs in urban areas that tend to be better paid
there is access to better educational opportunities and healthcare
other family members might have already moved to an urban area
people think they will have a better quality of life
Megacities
cities with a population of 10 million or more
growing due to high rates of urbanisation
as of 2018, there are 33 megacities and 27 of them are located in LICs and NEEs.
by 2030, the number is expected to have increased to 43
Rio de Janeiro importance
Rio is located in the south east of Brazil in south america on the Atlantic coast. It is Brazil’s 2nd most populated city and was capital until 1960.
Regional Importance:
racially mixed population due to migration so increased cultural diversity
its service and manufacturing industries provide jobs for local people
National Importance:
major economic hub. Some large
Brazilian companies have their headquarters in Brazil, as well as use the port in Rio de Janeiro for imports and exports.
Brazil’s second most important industrial city - produces 5% of brazil’s GDP
International Importance
Statue of Christ the Redeemer is a wonder of the world
Scenic with lots of beaches and landmarks - one of the most visited cities in the southern hemisphere - 2 million
Rio’s carnivals are world famous, attracting around 5
million visitors to watch and take part each year
Brazil has the largest economy in South America,
and the 8th largest in the
world. This is because Brazil has large companies in oil
manufacturing, mining and telecommunications. - Rio is the largest producer of oil in brazil - pretrobas
hosted 2014 football world cup and 2016 olympics
causes of Rio’s growth
Rio de Janeiro is very attractive for economic business opportunities as well as international
tourist holidays.
A combination of the two has helped Brazil’s economy to grow, and Rio has had
an influx of migrants wanting to live here (especially for new business opportunities).
natural increase
Opportunities from urban growth in Rio
Social
health care centres and hospitals are significantly better in Rio than in rural areas. Compared to living in the countryside, vulnerable people such as children and the elderly have better access to emergency care and vaccinations in Rio.
There are many primary and secondary schools in Rio which have enabled 95% of children aged 10 and above in the city to be literate. This is considerably higher than the national average. The city also has several universities providing higher education opportunities.
Access to clean water has increased considerably in Rio since the city hosted major sporting events such as the 2014 World Cup and the 2016 Olympics. around 90% of Rio‘s population have access to mains water supply.
Economic
Employment opportunities are available in Rio’s five ports through the export of coffee, sugar and iron ore.
The largest steelworks in South America is located in Sepetiba Bay in Rio. This has led to new construction and supply industries being attracted to the area further encouraging economic growth and job opportunities - multiplier effect.
service sector (e.g. retail and finance) has grown to meet the demands of the area. Migrant labour and economic investment are also attracted to Rio due to the growth in manufacturing industries such as furniture, clothing, pharmaceuticals and food processing
Challenges from urbanisation of Rio - slums and squatter settlements:
slums and squatter settlements:
population has grown too quickly due to migration for the city to develop with it
This means that there aren’t enough services and resources available for everyone, many people cannot afford houses in the city and there aren’t enough jobs.
Millions have been forced to build their own homes on land they don’t own due to the lack of affordable housing
As many poor quality houses are built illegally on the side of the hills in Rio they are at risk of landslides.
Challenges from urbanisation of Rio - Access to clear water, sanitation and energy
Access to clear water, sanitation and energy
Due to the very high population density in favelas, disease can spread very quickly.
Infant mortality rates are very high at 50 per 1000.
Often there is limited waste collection which increases the risk of disease
37% of water is lost through leaky pipes, fraud and illegal access. Only 50% of Rio’s waste water is treated.
In poor areas, some residents tap into the power supply illegally. This has led to fires.
Challenges from urbanisation of Rio -Access to health and education
Access to health and education
Education is compulsory from 6-14 in Brazil. only half of students in Rio get education past this.
School attendance is low because of the lack of schools and teachers, the distance people need to travel to school and many children work to earn money for their families. Many drop out and get into illegal business like drug dealing to help feed their families.
in 2013, only 55% had a local health clinic and the services for the elderly and pregnant were very poor.
Challenges from urbanisation of Rio -Unemployment and crime
Unemployment and crime
High murder rate at 20 per 1000 in favelas. drugs, vandalism and theft.
Drug gangs are dominant. Many people distrust the police due to violence and corruption.
unemployment rate - 20%. around 1/3 in poorly paid irregular jobs (informal). Average income less than $75 a month. 3.5m in Rio are informally employed.
Challenges from urbanisation of Rio - Environmental issues
Environmental issues
Most congested city in South America. Steep mountains prevent new roads. Tunnels through mountains are required which are expensive and time consuming to construct.
Many people have older cars which release more pollution. Car ownership has increased by 40% in the last 10 years
heavy pollution is caused by heavy traffic and mist from the atlantic mixing with fumes.
5000 die from air pollution each year in Rio
This problem is being addressed by expansion of the metro system, toll roads and one way roads
sewage run off from favelas and emptying of fuel tanks. 200 tonnes of raw sewage and 50 tonnes of industrial waste pour into the rivers and bay each day which damages the ecosystem and local economy
This problem is being addressed by 12 new seawage works, new pipes and fines for polluting ships
People in favelas do not get proper waste collection services
waste pollution leads to the spread of diseases like cholera and the spread of rats
This problem is being addressed by building a power plant that generates electricity from methane
The Barrio Project in Rio
slum to neighbourhood project in Rio from 1995-2008
sought to integrate existing favelas into the fabric of the city through upgrading infrastructure and services
involved 253000 people in 88 favelas
land was identified for the scheme. the infrastructure was then laid in advance of the settlements so that water, sanitation and electricity would be properly suplied to individually marked plots.
People then built their homes using whatever materials they could afford at the time.
Barrio Project improvements
addiction rehab
adult education
day care services
better access to education and running water
dance, english classes and footbal for children
streets widened and paved
more frequent waste and rubbish collection
wooden buildings replaced by brick
job training
people can apply for legal ownership of their properties
Barrio Project advantages and disadvantages
advantages
Government receives taxes from residents which help to improve the services
local businesses doubled
income risen by 15%
property values increased between 80-120%
tandard of living and access to healthcare - infant mortality rate reduced
wast lorries colledct rubbish and water is not contaminated - cleaner environment
literacy rate improved for both children and adults - better job access
disadvantages
unskilled teachers can’t improve literacy
rents have risen so this pushes the poorest out again - they build illegal settlements further away
high risk favelas can’t be improved. those on very unsafe land are bulldozed down
residents can lack the skills and resources to repair damage
The budget of USD $1 billion is not enough to cover all the favela in Rio so some areas remain in poverty
There is still high illegal employment even in Complexo de Alemao
Self help schemes in Rio
small scale projects which allow local people to use their skills to help improve their local area
in Rio, local residents are provided with building materials like concrete blocks and cement in order to replace home made shelters with permanent dwellings
These are often 3-4 storeys high and have water, electricity and sewage systems installed
This reduces the number of dangerous buildings and helps prevent the spread of sisease
Also helps to improve their skills, employability and reduce unemployment
low interest loans may be used to help people fund these changes and people may also be given legal ownership of the land they live on
The Brazilian Federal Savings Bank offered 100% mortgages to families to allow them to buy a house. This supports the improvemt of the favelas as people become responsible for upgrading and maintenance, rather than it being government responsibility
Downside is that favelas are often built in locations with poor access and connerctivity to public transport, resulting in them being far from major sources of employment, making it harder for people to pay
location and importance of London in the UK and the wider world
south east of england on the river thames
pop 8.8M
greater london is organised into 32 boroughs
the city became a port as the Thames is a tidal river
the city was constructed at the lowest bridging point on the Thames. this is the widest point along a river where a bridge can be built. the first birdge spanning the thames was built close to present day london bridge
docks built in the 18th century increased the number of ships using london as a port which led to london becoming a centre for trade and commerce - manufacturing industries developed
eemployment opportunities led to rural - urban migration
role as port declined towards the end of 20th century - still remains a hub for UK’s transport network - rail and road
UK’s largest and wealthiest city - durng 21st century, gap in earnings and house prices has increased between the city and the rest of the UK. it also generates around 22% of the UK’s GDP
represents 1/3 of higher education institutions nationally but also on the international stage
one of the two most important financial centres in the world and much of london’s finance industry is located in ‘the square mile’ or ‘the city’. the other major financial district is canary wharf area
HQs of many international and large british companies are located in london - attracts highly skilled workers
national and international centre for education, media and communications networks, medical and legal facilities, culture, tourism and entertainment
47% of the city consists of green space - recently became the world’s first bational park city through it's ambitious urban greening programme
impacts of national and international migration on the growth and character of the city
population of greater london higher now than it has ever been
has been growing for the last 200 years due to the industrial revolution
has a younger population - young people move to london for work, attracted by employment opportunities, higher pay and the perception of a better life. those between 20-30 are more likely to have children - natural population increase
migrants from around the world add to London’s population. as people arrive, others leave - balance between this is net migration
net migration into london is low but most immigrants are quite young while most leaving are older - reduces the populations average age and leads to a higher natural increase
magnet for international migrants - diverse and cosmopolitan population
people migrated since roman times and saxon and normans also came
post WW2 - significant immigration from former british colonies and commonwealth countries: india, caribbean, pakistan and african countires
expansion of EU in 200s -influx of eastern european migrants, especially poland and romania
migrants sought employment opportunities annd contributed to the labour market (construction, hospitality and healthcare)
population growth - driven by migration - influenced housing, services and infrastructure demand, transforming the city’s physical landscape
cultural diversity - cultures, languages and traditions. different ethnic communities have established neighbourhoods
economic contributions - crucial role in london’s economy - filled gaps in labour market and brought valuable skills and knowledge - innovation and economic growth
social challenges - pressure on public services and tensions between different cultural groups (social integration issues)
urban development - migrants often settle in specific area - development of distinct neighbourhoods - regeneration of certain areas
transport and infrstructure - demands on transpoort systems, necessitating expansions and improvements. demands for specif amenities and services, shaping infrastructure
political and policy implications - debates on immigration policies, integration and social cohesion. have implemented various policies to manage migration and promote community cohesion, recognising the importance of balanced and inclusive growth
how urban change has created social and economic opportunities in shoreditch
was once a run down inner city area with ageing and derelict factories and warehouses, causing people to leave
many bangladeshi migrants moved in so now it has a diverse ethnic population that is almost unrecogniseable from a few decades ago
old industrial structures have transformed into residential flats and office spaces
pubs and bars have been revamped and repurposed into restaurants and art galleries
new job opportunities have emerged in creative industries such as web design, filmaking and art
rapid influx of hi tech companies - facebook, google and microsoft have channel investments here
gentrification has caused a shift in the population of shoreditch, with older residents and bangladeshi families leaving due to increasing rents and property prices
in their place, young professionals in industries such as art and finance have moved in
this has brough about a surge in new recreational and entertainment options, making it one of london’s liveliest areas - during the day, the bustling cafes cater to the younger crowd, while at night, clubs and bars
graffiti and artwork is attractive to visitors
spitalfields market site redeveloped into a popular shopping area with various retail brands, street food, places to eat, independant traders and public events.
how urban change has created environmental opportunities: urban greening
central london: boasts more extensive parks than many other cities, including royal parks like hyde park
local parks: municipal parks managed by local councils are scattered throughout inner and outer london, dating back to when public hygiene was a concern and people sought fresh air
suburban expansion: as london expanded, suburbs were built on former farmland, providing millions of homes with gardens for londoners
london is considered one of the greenest cities in the world (47% covered by green spaces)
urban greening - preserving and expanding green spaces within urban areas
in london, these involve primarily protection measures such as encouraging feeding birds during winter and refraining from paving over gardens. at a large scale this might be efforts focusing on linking existing green spaces to facilitate natural migration patterns of species - gren grid to connect open areas has been established
was named the world’s first “national park city” to preserve and improve the city’s natural environment while promoting its parks to the public
charter for london as a national park city - improving lives, healt and wellbeing; preserving wildlife, trees, and flowers, promoting sustainable habits, air, water, sea and land, encouraging outdoor activities and culture, promoting locally grown food and responsible consumption
how urban change has created challenges: social and economic:
deprivation refers to the extent which individuals or communities lack the fundamental necessities required for a decent quality of life, such as employment opportunites, financial stability, adequete housing and essential services
a social measure of deprivation is life expectancy as the more deprived a person is, the lower their life expectancy. it is uneven across London, suggesting that some areas are more deprived than others
the lowest life expectancy rates in london’s most deprived areas are closely connected to inadequete nutrition, housing, education and job opportunites
how urban change has created challenges: environmental
london’s population is growing much faster than the rate at which new houses are being built, resulting in a significant housing shortage and very rapidly rising property prices
shortage has resulted in increased homelessness and overcrowding. this is most noticeable with the high number of rough sleepers on london’s streets but others are sleeping on fried’s couches or low cost hotels
approx 170,000 individuals are homeless in london, accounting for half of the overall uk homeless population
one potential solution is constructing homes on greenfield sites outside the city. these are typically underdeveloped land areas such as farmland or on the outskirts of urban areas
however this may lead to unplanned urban growth, aka urban sprawl which may not be well received by rural residents
due to poorer public transport links, people wold need to use cars
land is unlikely to ever go back to being countryside once it is built on
valuable agricultural land is lost
natural habitats destroyed
another option is building on brownfield sites within the city. these consist of previously developed land that is now derelict and suitable redevelopment. often former industrial areas with soil contamination. due to the decline of manufacturing industries, london has numerous brownfield sites. it also reduces urban sprawl and there is less need for cars due to better public transport. new developments could improve the environment.
demolition of old buildings may be required
land may need to be decontaminated
land in urban environments is in high demand, therefore it may be more expensive
how urban change has created challenges: the impact of urban sprawl
a green belt surrounds uk cities such as london and it is subject to strict planning controls
established in 1947 with the aim to curb urban sprawl and has since helped to preserve farmland, woodland and parkland around london
however with the rising demand for housing in london, some less valuable green belt land could be repurposed as greenfiels sites for new homes
as london’s population and housing costs increase, more people relocate to commuter settlements beyond the green belt, causing population and housing prices in the rest of SE england to escalate
consequently, urban sprawl has shifted to commuter settlements outside the green belt, such as reading and chelmsford which are experiencing rapid growth.
urban regeneration project: greenwhich peninsula
aims to reduce arban sprawl by redeveloping 150 acres of browfield land
began in 1999 and expected to be completed by 2035
the millenium dome, now th o2, the world’s entertainment home was completed in 2000 and was the start of the shiftfrom industrial to residential. however, many saw it as very expensive and it didn’t attrct visitors in the way that had been hoped initially
the £8.4 billion project will split the former gas works area into 7 distinct neighbourhoods with 5720 new residential units, entertainment venues and public spaces with cafes, restuaurants and a 5km running trail
the project has already created thousands of new homes, an ecology park, a cable car over the river and school buildings.
waste recycling
currently, nearly a quarter of london’s waste is still disposed of in its landfills outside of the city which was previsously deemed acceptable
now it is known that landfill wasste contributes to broader envionmental issues, such as the production of methane
treatingwaste as garbage wastes potentially valuable resources
to combat this, london is working towards reducing waste and managing resources more efficiently to achieve the target of sending zero waste to landfills by 2030
this will be achieved by increasing recycling rates to recycle 65% of waste by 2030, surpassing the 52% achieved in 2016
the remaining waste will mostly be incinerated or burned to generate electricity
How urban transport strategies are used
£1.2B to create healthy streets, increase walking, cycling and public transport use. Road safety and air quality increased in public spaces. traffic free areas
new taxis will need to be zero emsission capable to help clean the London air. zero emission ranks for drivers who pioneer green tech. network of rapid charge points
£1.8M to make it easier to own an electric vehicle in london. rapid charging points across 25 boroughs
£300M into retrofitting thousands of buses and committing to phase out pure diesel double decker buses snd 12 new low emission bus zones on London’s most polluted routes which are expected to reduce NOx emissions by 84%
3000 new ultra low emission double decker buses in central london by 2019 and more than 250 zero emission single decker buses by 2020. Reducing emissions of NOx by 95%
ulta low emission zones
congestion charging zone - a £15 daily fee to any vehicle travelling in central london between certain times, encouraging public transport use.
oyser card is quick and efficient payment method for public transport
bike sharing scheme - self hire bikes in many pulic places for as little as free for 30 mins - has encouraged many people to cycle, reducing congestion
crossrail
73 mile new railway line under development in london. crossing london from west to east.
reasons for crossrail
overcrowded tube station
customs house is oone of the poorest parta of london is now 1 stop away from canary wharf on the new cross rail route
traffic congestion - m25 is one of Europe’s most congested motorways. often used to get between east and west london
canary wharf is one of london’s main financial hubs. crossrail improves access
arguments for
will reduce journey times between key locations in the city
will increase capacity to move patientsby 10%
it will create an improved transport network
boost the economy £42bn
stations disability friendly
free wifi on trains so people can work on their commute
55,000 jobs directly and indurectly created
will bring another 14m people within 45mi of central london
raise the value of properties near the station by 25%
arguments against
will damage key archaelogical sites in the city
you could build so many hospitals for £18-25bn
constant delays in opening the line and an overblown budget means it has been wasting time, effort and money
Note 
Flashcard (93)