Key Concepts in U.S. Judicial System and Federal Courts

Patronage

- the practice of giving government jobs or political favors to supporters, friends, or loyal party members.

- It was common in the 19th century and often rewarded political loyalty rather than qualifications.

- Today, civil service reforms have reduced patronage, emphasizing merit-based hiring instead.

Stare Decisis

- a legal principle meaning "to stand by things decided."

- It requires courts to follow previous judicial decisions (precedents) when the same points arise again in litigation.

- This ensures consistency, stability, and predictability in the law over time.

Judicial Review

- the power of the courts to examine laws, executive actions, or lower court decisions to determine whether they violate the Constitution.

- Established in Marbury v. Madison (1803), it allows the Supreme Court to strike down unconstitutional acts.

- This power serves as a check on the legislative and executive branches.

Discretionary Authority

- refers to the power given to bureaucratic agencies to make decisions and interpret laws within broad legislative guidelines.

- Agencies use this authority when specific details are not outlined in laws passed by Congress.

- It allows experts to create policies and rules that address complex or technical issues.

Life Tenure

-means federal judges, including Supreme Court justices, serve for life unless they resign, retire, or are removed by impeachment.

- This is intended to shield them from political pressures and allow them to make decisions based solely on the law.

- It helps ensure judicial independence and consistency over time.

Rulemaking Authority

- the power of executive agencies to create regulations that have the force of law.

- Congress grants this power to agencies to fill in the details of legislation and address specific policy areas.

- These rules guide how laws are implemented and affect how individuals and organizations behave.

Jurisdiction

- a court's legal authority to hear and decide a case.

- It can be based on geography, subject matter, or the parties involved.

- Without proper jurisdiction, a court cannot issue a legally binding decision.

Precedent

- a previous court decision that guides future cases involving similar facts or legal issues.v

- Courts often rely on precedents to ensure consistency and fairness in the legal system.

- They can either follow or, in rare cases, overturn them if societal views or legal interpretations change.

Civil Service

- refers to the system of hiring and promoting government employees based on merit and qualifications rather than political connections.

- This system ensures a professional, stable, and nonpartisan workforce.

- It replaced the patronage system and is designed to improve efficiency and fairness in government.

Implementation

- the process of putting laws and policies into action by government agencies.

- After Congress passes a law, agencies create regulations, enforce rules, and oversee programs to achieve the law's goals.

- Effective implementation determines whether a policy achieves its intended outcomes.

Federalist No. 78

- Written by Alexander Hamilton, argues for the independence of the judiciary and supports life tenure for judges.

- Hamilton explains that courts are the "least dangerous" branch because they rely on judgment, not force or will.

- He also emphasizes the importance of judicial review to protect the Constitution and individual rights.

Judicial Independence

- means that courts operate free from influence or pressure from the other branches of government or public opinion.

- This ensures judges make decisions based solely on the law and Constitution.

- Independence is protected by life tenure, fixed salaries, and separation of powers.

Iron Triangle

- the close, stable relationship between a congressional committee, a bureaucratic agency, and an interest group.

- These three groups work together to shape policy, exchange information, and support each other's goals.

- While effective for policymaking, iron triangles can sometimes lead to favoritism or lack of accountability.

Supreme Court

- the highest court in the United States and the final authority on constitutional interpretation.

- It hears cases that involve significant legal questions or conflicts among lower courts.

- Its decisions set binding precedents that shape American law and society.

Judicial Restraint

- the philosophy that judges should interpret the Constitution narrowly and defer to the decisions of elected branches unless laws clearly violate the Constitution.

- Judges using this approach avoid overturning laws or setting broad precedents.

- It reflects a belief that policymaking should mainly be done by legislatures.

Marbury v. Madison

- was a landmark Supreme Court case that established judicial review.

- The Court ruled that it had the power to declare acts of Congress unconstitutional.

- This decision significantly strengthened the judiciary's role as a co-equal branch of government.

Judicial Activism

- the philosophy that judges should interpret the Constitution more broadly and use their power to promote justice, equality, or social change.

- Activist judges are more likely to strike down laws or create new precedents.

- Critics argue it allows judges to overstep their role, while supporters say it helps protect rights.

Legitimacy of the Supreme Court

- refers to public trust and acceptance of its authority to interpret the law and Constitution.

- Its legitimacy depends on perceptions of fairness, impartiality, and adherence to legal principles.

- If the Court is seen as too political, its decisions may face public resistance.

Article III of the U.S. Constitution

- establishes the judicial branch of the federal government.

- It outlines the structure, powers, and jurisdiction of the Supreme Court and allows Congress to create lower federal courts.

- also guarantees judicial independence by granting life tenure and protecting judges' salaries.