unit 1 - BARRONS - AP psych

genetic predisposition

the increased chance of developing a specific trait or condition due to our genetic code

chromosomes in human cells

46 chromosomes in 23 pairs

chromosome composition

genetic material called DNA

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid

genes

discrete segments of DNA that control the production of specific proteins that control some human traits

identical twins

monozygotic twins

develop from one fertilised egg called a zygote

share all the same genetic material

chromosome that determines our sex

23rd pair of chromosomes

males = XY

females XX

Turner's Syndrome

Monosomy X

born with only a single X chromosome in the spot usually occupied by the 23rd pair

symptoms of Turner's syndrome

short stature

webbed necks

difference in physical sexual development

Klinefelter's syndrome

have an extra X chromosome resulting in an XXY pattern

symptoms of Klinefelter's syndrome

minimal sexual development

extreme introversion

Down syndrome

extra chromosome on the 21st pair

physical characteristics indicative of Down syndrome

rounded face

shorter fingers and toes

slander eyes set far apart

intellectual disability

neuroatonomy

study of the parts and functions of neurons

Neurons

individual nerve cells

Dendrites

rootlike parts of the cell that stretch out from the cell body.

dendrites grow to make synaptic connections with other neuron's

cell body (soma)

contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell needed to sustain its life

Axon

wirelike structure ending in the terminal buttons that extend from the cell body

myelin sheath

a fatty covering around the axon of some neurone that speed neural impulses

multiple sclerosis

when the myelin sheath deteriorates around neurone, interfering with neural transmission

terminal buttons are also known as

end buttons

terminal branches of axons

synaptic knobs

terminal buttons

the branched end of the axon that contain neurotransmitters

neurotransmitters

chemicals contained in terminal buttons that enable neurone to communicate.

neurotransmitters fit into receptor sites on the dendeits of neurone

synapse

the space between the terminal buttons of one neuron and the dendrites of the next neutron

neural transmission

the sequence when a neutron transmits a message

1. the terminal buttons of neuron a are stimulated and release neurotransmitters into the synapse

2. the neurotransmitters fit into receptor sites on the dendrites of neuron B

3. if enough neurotransmitters are received, the cell membrane of neuron B becomes permeable and positive ions rush into the cell

4. the charge within the cell becomes +40 mV

5. the change in charge spreads down the length of neuron B

6. when the charge reaches the terminal buttons of neuron B, the buttons release their neurotransmitters into the synapse

resting potential

The difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron's cell membrane

-70 mV

mostly surrounded by positive ions

threshold

the level of stimulation (the amount of neurotransmitters) required to trigger a neural impulse

action potential

the change in electrical potential associated with the passage of an impulse along the membrane of a muscle cell or nerve cell.

all-or-none principle

the neurone either fires completely or not at all

depolarisation

The change from a negative resting potential to a positive action potential

neural firing

electrochemical process

Electricity travels within the cell (from the dendrites to the terminal buttons), and chemicals (neurotransmitters) travel between cells in the synapse

excitatory neurotransmitters

excite the next cell into firing

inhibitory neurotransmitters

inhibit the next cell from firing

Dopamine

motor movement and alertness

Serotonin

mood control

Norepinephrine

alertness and arousal

glutamate

excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory

GABA

Important inhibitory neurotransmitter

Endorphins

pain control; involved in addictions

Substance P

pain perception

acetylcholine

motor movement

with an excess or deficit of Dopamine

deficit is associated with Parkinson's disease

excess is associated with schizophrenia

with an excess or deficit of Serotonin

deficit is associated with clinical depression

with an excess or deficit of norepinephrine

deficit associated with depression

with an excess or deficit of glutamate

triggers migraines, seizures

with an excess or deficit of GABA

internalises when having seizures and can cause sleep problems

with an excess or deficit of Endorphins

addictions

with an excess or deficit of Substance P

deficit associated with a lack of pain perception

with an excess or deficit of Acetylcholine

deficit is associated with Alzheimer's disease

also involved in Myasthenia Graves

Myasthenia gravis

Acetylcholine is involved

causes muscle weakness

afferent neurons

sensory neurons

take information from the senses to the brain

interneurons

relay neurons

Once information reaches the brain or spinal cord, interneurons (also called association neurons) take the messages and send them elsewhere in the brain or on to efferent neurons.

efferent neurons

motor neurons

take information from the brain to the rest of the body.

Central Nervous system

consists of our brain and spinal cord

all the nerves housed within bone (the skull and vertebrae)

the spinal cord

a bundle of nerves that run through the center of the spine.

It transmits information from the rest of the body to the brain.

Peripheral Nervous system transmission

Sensory neurons are activated, and this message is transmitted up a neuron that runs from the point of sensation to the base of your spine

The message continues up your spinal cord on more interneurons until it enters your brain through the brainstem

efferent neutrons send corresponding response to effectors

reflex arc pathway

stimulus -> receptor ->sensory neuron -> relay neuron -> motor neuron -> effector -> response.

knee jerk reflex

stimulating the correct area just below your kneecap, causes the leg to jerk without conscious control.

Peripheral nervous system

consists of all the nerves in your body that are not part of the central nervous system

all the nerves not encased in bones

What is the PNS divided into?

Somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system

somatic nervous system

controls our voluntary muscle movements.

The motor cortex of the brain sends impulses to the somatic nervous system, which controls the muscles that allow us to move

Autonomic nervous system

controls the automatic functions of our body

what is the autonomic nervous system divided into

the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

sympathetic nervous system

mobilizes our body to respond to stress

accelerates heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration

conserves resources needed for a quick response by slowing down other functions

parasympathetic nervous system

It carries messages to the stress response system that cause many of our body activities to slow down and return the body to homeostasis (its typical level) after a stress response

endocrine gland

a system of glands that secrete hormones that affect many different biological processes in our bodies.

The endocrine system is controlled in the brain by the hypothalamus

adrenaline

Activated during the fight-or-flight response in stressful situations. Speeds up bodily processes.

leptin

Involved in weight regulation. Suppresses hunger (food may be perceived as less appetizing).

Gherkin

Motivates eating/increases hunger (food may be perceived as more appetizing).

Melatonin

Triggers sleep and wakefulness responses in the brain

Oxytocin

Promotes good feelings such as trust and bonding

adrenal glands

produce adrenaline

ovaries and testes

Ovaries and testes produce our sex hormones, estrogen for females and testosterone for males

accidents

psychologists monitor change in behaviour after accidents and record damaged parts of the brain to build associations

Phineas gage

In 1848, a railroad worker named Phineas Gage was involved in an accident that damaged the front part of his brain. Gage became highly emotional and impulsive after the accident. Researchers concluded that the parts of the brain damaged in the accident are somehow involved in emotional control

Lesions

the removal or destruction of part of the brain.

Any time brain tissue is removed (lesioning), researchers can examine behavior changes and try to infer the function of that part of the brain.

frontal lobotomy

used to control mentally ill patients who had no other treatment options

makes patients calm and relieve some serious symptoms

Electroencephalogram

detects brain

Researchers can examine what type of waves the brain produces during different stages of consciousness and use this information to generalize about brain function

used in sleep research to identify the different stages of sleep and dreaming.

Computerized Axial Tomography

uses several X ray cameras that rotate around the brain and combine all the pictures into a detailed three-dimensional picture of the brain's structure

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

uses magnetic fields to measure the density and location of brain material

the patient is not exposed to carcinogenic radiation

Positron Emission Tomography

lets researchers see what areas of the brain are most active during certain tasks

measures how much of a certain chemical (e.g., glucose) parts of the brain are using.

Different types of scans are used for different chemicals such as neurotransmitters, drugs, and oxygen flow.

Functional MRI

combines elements of the MRI and PET scans

show details of brain structure with information about blood flow in the brain, tying brain structure to brain activity during cognitive tasks

Hindbrain

located on top of the spinal cord.

The hindbrain is our life support system

controls the basic biological functions that keep us alive

contains the medulla, pons, and cerebellum

medulla

control of our blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing

located above the spinal cord

pons

located just above the medulla and toward the front

connects the hindbrain with the midbrain and forebrain

also involved in the control of facial expressions.

cerebellum

located on the bottom rear of the brain

coordinates some habitual muscle movements

midbrain

located just above the structures in the hindbrain but still below areas categorized as the forebrain

very small in humans

coordinates simple movements with sensory information

contains reticular formation

reticular formation

a netlike collection of cells throughout the midbrain

controls general body arousal and the ability to focus our attention

if it does not function, we fall into a deep coma

forebrain

The largest and most complicated region of the brain,

including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, amygdala, hippocampus and cerebrum.

control what we think of as thought and reason

thalamus

located on top of the brain stem

responsible for receiving the sensory signals coming up the spinal cord and sending them to the appropriate areas in the rest of the forebrain

Hypothalamus

small structure right under the thalamus

controls several metabolic functions, including body temperature, sexual arousal (libido), hunger, thirst, and the endocrine system.

limbic system

thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus

deal with aspects of emotion and memory

Hippocampus

two armlike structures surrounding the thalamus

vital to our memory system

Memories are processed through this area and then sent to other locations in the cerebral cortex for permanent storage

individuals with brain damage in this area are unable to retain new information

Amygdala

found at the end of each hippocampal arm

vital to our experiences of emotion

Cerebral Cortex

The gray, wrinkled surface of the brain

thin layer of densely packed neurons

pruning

When we are born, our cerebral cortex is full of neurons

As we develop and learn, the dendrites of the neurons in the cerebral cortex grow and connect with other neurons.

fissures

wrinkles increase the surface area contained within our skull

wrinkles

contralateral hemispheric organization

The idea that each side of the brain controls the opposite side of the body is called

current investigations into differences between hemispheres

the possibility that the left hemisphere may be more active during logic and sequential tasks and the right during spatial and creative tasks.

hemispheric specialisation

lateralisation

the specialization of function in each hemisphere